Erosion and sedimentation in Kalpakkam (N Tamil Nadu, India) from the 26th December 2004 tsunami

Laterally extensive sand sheets deposited by the 26th December 2004 Asian tsunami provide a valuable modern analogue for comparison with wash over deposits of unknown origin. In many places on the east coast of India, distinct deposits of marine sand drape the landscape and overlie the muddy soils of the coastal plain. This paper discusses detailed measurements of coastal topography, tsunami flow height, and deposit thickness made at Kalpakkam, India. Five transects were examined in detail to assess the sedimentology and spatial distribution of the tsunami deposit. Near the mean water line, the tsunami eroded approximately 10–25 cm of sand from the beach and berm. At Kalpakkam the sand sheet deposited by the tsunami begins 25 m from the shore extending 420 m inland where it becomes thin and patchy approximately 30 m from the limit of inundation. In some cases, the deposit consists of 2 to 4 normally graded units, with coarse sand near the base and fine sand at the top, a characteristic observed in many tsunami deposits worldwide. In many places, the deposits also contain numerous thin laminated units, a characteristic usually associated with storm over wash. The presence of the laminated beds is indicative of the complexity of tsunami sedimentation on the coast. Such observations are essential to the formation of definitive facies models for palaeo-overwash studies that are capable of distinguishing between sediments deposited by storms or tsunami.     

Deposits of the 1983 and 1993 tsunamis on the coast of Primorye

Deposits of the two strongest tsunamis of the 20th century have been found on the eastern coast of Primorye. The tsunamis had epicenters in the Sea of Japan west of the coast of Hokkaido. The distribution and preservation of deposits in bays of different geomorphological structure have been analyzed. The best defined sedimentary covers occur in the upper part of sections in low-lying areas of bay shores, where the wave runup was more than 3 m. The best preserved deposits have been observed in bays attributed to loworder streams. Variations of the structural composition of tsunami deposits formed by traction processes associated with the tsunamis have been analyzed depending on distance from the shoreline; the sources of material have been identified. Tsunami waves transported sand not only from beaches, ancient storm ridges, and terraces, but also from the underwater coastal slope; waves also grabbed material from estuarine lagoons and lakes located in the shore inundation zone. Deposits include marine diatoms with dominant sublittoral planktonic and benthic species, which suggests that the material was transported from a depth no more than 15 m. Deep-sea species of diatoms and their fragments have been encountered. Among freshwater diatoms are species with different ecological identities, indicating erosion and redeposition of material transported from various sources.     

The tsunami hypothesis—comparisons of the field evidence against the effects, on the Western Australian coast, of some of the most powerful storms on Earth

The tsunami hypothesis proposes that prehistoric tsunamis may have been larger than historic ones along coasts normally (historically) not associated with major tsunamis. The evidence for the hypothesis rests with the types of unusual sedimentary deposits and erosional forms along coasts where the largest historic and prehistoric storm waves do not appear capable of forming the features. This is especially the case at locations where boundary conditions, i.e. offshore water depth, coastal geomorphology and meteorological limitations, are not conducive to the propagation of sufficiently large storm waves at the shore. The tsunami hypothesis has been barely debated in the literature. This is despite the view of some, who suggest that storms have been overlooked, or underestimated, as a cause. Few comparisons have been made of the supposed tsunami generated features and the impacts on coasts of extreme intensity storms. Four of the most powerful tropical cyclones anywhere in the world in recent times struck the Western Australian coast between 1999 and 2002. The results of post-event surveys of these storms showed that none of them produced the enigmatic forms attributed elsewhere to tsunamis.     

Assessment of tsunami hazard for coastal areas of Shandong Province,China

Shandong province is located on the east coast of China and has a coastline of about 3100 km. There are only a few tsunami events recorded in the history of Shandong Province, but the tsunami hazard assessment is still necessary as the rapid economic development and increasing population of this area. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential danger posed by tsunamis for Shandong Province. The numerical simulation method was adopted to assess the tsunami hazard for coastal areas of Shandong Province. The Cornell multi-grid coupled tsunami numerical model (COMCOT) was used and its efficacy was verified by comparison with three historical tsunami events. The simulated maximum tsunami wave height agreed well with the observational data. Based on previous studies and statistical analyses, multiple earthquake scenarios in eight seismic zones were designed, the magnitudes of which were set as the potential maximum values. Then, the tsunamis they induced were simulated using the COMCOT model to investigate their impact on the coastal areas of Shandong Province. The numerical results showed that the maximum tsunami wave height, which was caused by the earthquake scenario located in the sea area of the Mariana Islands, could reach up to 1.39 m off the eastern coast of Weihai city. The tsunamis from the seismic zones of the Bohai Sea, Okinawa Trough, and Manila Trench could also reach heights of >1 m in some areas, meaning that earthquakes in these zones should not be ignored. The inundation hazard was distributed primarily in some northern coastal areas near Yantai and southeastern coastal areas of Shandong Peninsula. When considering both the magnitude and arrival time of tsunamis, it is suggested that greater attention be paid to earthquakes that occur in the Bohai Sea. In conclusion, the tsunami hazard facing the coastal area of Shandong Province is not very serious; however, disasters could occur if such events coincided with spring tides or other extreme oceanic conditions. The results of this study will be useful for the design of coastal engineering projects and the establishment of a tsunami warning system for Shandong Province.     

Propagation Mechanisms of Incident Tsunami Wave in Jiangsu Coastal Area,Caused by Eastern Japan Earthquake on March 11,2011

At 13:46 on March 11, 2011(Beijing time), an earthquake of Mw=9.0 occurred in Japan. By comparing the tsunami data from Guanhekou marine station with other tsunami wave observation gathered from southeast coastal area of China, it was evident that, only in Guanhekou, the position of the maximum wave height appeared in the middle part rather than in the front of the tsunami wave train. A numerical model of tsunami propagation based on 2-D nonlinear shallow water equations was built to study the impact range and main causes of the special tsunami waveform discovered in Jiangsu coastal area. The results showed that nearly three-quarters of the Jiangsu coastal area, mainly comprised the part north of the radial sand ridges, reached its maximum tsunami wave height in the middle part of the wave train. The main cause of the special waveform was the special underwater topography condition of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea area, which influenced the tsunami propagation and waveform significantly. Although land boundary reflection brought an effect on the position of the maximum wave height to a certain extent, as the limits of the incident waveform and distances between the observation points and shore, it was not the dominant influence factor of the special waveform. Coriolis force's impact on the tsunami waves was so weak that it was not the main cause for the special phenomenon in Jiangsu coastal area. The study reminds us that the most destructive wave might not appear in the first one in tsunami wave train.     

Tsunami deposits of the Shikotan earthquake of 1994

This paper describes the results of the grain-size and mineralogical studies of the deposits of the tsunami of 1994 on Shikotan, Tanfil’ev, and Kunashir islands. The studies were carried out within the portions of the coast with different configurations, geomorphologic structures, lithodynamical environments, and character of the tsunami manifestation. The composition of the tsunami deposits is shown to be controlled mainly by erosion-accumulative processes during the tsunami events and is in many respects inherited from the matter sources. The tsunami deposits contain marine diatom species, whose richest assemblages were found within the areas where the material from the underwater coastal slope was redeposited. The data concerning the deposits of earlier historical tsunamis encountered in the same cross sections are discussed too. Their examination points to a similar development of the erosional-accumulative processes during tsunami events with the same intensity and an entrainment of the matter from the same sources.     

Short-Term Morphological and Shoreline Changes at Trinkat Island,Andaman and Nicobar,India, After the 2004 Tsunami

The tsunami waves generated during the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of 26 December 2004 devastated the coastal area along Trinkat Island, causing sudden changes to the morphology of the landforms. This study uses a series of satellite images to record the short-term morphological response and shoreline changes as well as the recovery of coastal land after its destruction. Results indicate that the island experienced substantial erosion and a significant reduction in land area. Shoreline erosion is more prevalent than accretion at an average linear regression rate of ～?9 m per year between 2004 and 2013. The major morphological changes at Trinkat Island were observed in coastal inlets, beaches, and bay head-lands. Straight beaches had almost recovered eight years after the tsunami; however, erosion is continually observed in other areas. Our study will help understanding the response and recovery of shorelines in Indian Ocean regions after the 2004 tsunami.     

亚太海岸工程研究进展——第三届亚太海岸会议论文简介

简要介绍2005年9月在韩国举行的第三届亚太海岸会议(APAC2005)论文概貌。分析会议论文内容和特点,从而透视亚太海岸工程研究进展。会议论文特点可概括为:波浪理论研究与工程应用密切结合,海岸灾害和环境研究,海洋动力因素观测与预报关注恶劣海况、海况变化和预报精度,泥沙运动与河口海岸演变注重机理研究,海岸动力特性数值模拟新发展,波浪-结构-地基相互作用关注随机性和地基土特性研究,工程案例与其他。初步讨论了我国这一领域发展水平及主要差距。     

Progress in the Study of Coastal Storm Deposits

Numerous studies have been carried out to identify storm deposits and decipher storm-induced sedimentary processes in coastal and shallow-marine areas. This study aims to provide an in-depth review on the study of coastal storm deposits from the following five aspects. 1) The formation of storm deposits is a function of hydrodynamic and sedimentary processes under the constraints of local geological and ecological factors. Many questions remain to demonstrate the genetic links between storm-related processes and a variety of resulting deposits such as overwash deposits, underwater deposits and hummocky cross-stratification (HCS). Future research into the formation of storm deposits should combine flume experiments, field observations and numerical simulations, and make full use of sediment source tracing methods. 2) Recently there has been rapid growth in the number of studies utilizing sediment provenance analysis to investigate the source of storm deposits. The development of source tracing techniques, such as mineral composition, magnetic susceptibility, microfossil and geochemical property, has allowed for better understanding of the depositional processes and environmental changes associated with coastal storms. 3) The role of extreme storms in the sedimentation of low-lying coastal wetlands with diverse ecosystem services has also drawn a great deal of attention. Many investigations have attempted to quantify widespread land loss, vertical marsh sediment accumulation and wetland elevation change induced by major hurricanes. 4) Paleostorm reconstructions based on storm sedimentary proxies have shown many advantages over the instrumental records and historic documents as they allow for the reconstruction of storm activities on millennial or longer time scales. Storm deposits having been used to establish proxies mainly include beach ridges and shelly cheniers, coral reefs, estuary-deltaic storm sequences and overwash deposits. Particularly over the past few decades, the proxies developed from overwash deposits have successfully retrieved many records of storm activities during the mid to late Holocene worldwide. 5) Distinguishing sediments deposited by storms and tsunamis is one of the most difficult issues among the many aspects of storm deposit studies. Comparative studies have investigated numerous diagnostic evidences including hydrodynamic condition, landward extent, grain property, texture and grading, thickness, microfossil assemblage and landscape conformity. Perhaps integrating physical, biological and geochemical evidences will, in the future, allow unambiguous identification of tsunami deposits and storm deposits.     

Field measurements and numerical simulations of the 2004 tsunami impact on the south coast of Sri Lanka

This paper examines the factors that have contributed to the significant spatial variability of the impact of the December 2004 tsunami in the southern province of Sri Lanka. Documented observations of the evidence left behind by the 2004 tsunami together with numerical simulation of tsunami propagation have been utilized for this purpose. The field data examined in the present analysis comprise the maximum water levels, the horizontal inundation distances and the number of housing and other buildings damaged as a result of the 2004 tsunami whilst the numerical results considered include the distribution of the amplitude of the tsunami. The present model results confirm that source directivity controls the distribution of tsunami amplitudes farther offshore whilst large-scale bathymetric features significantly influence the tsunami propagating over the shelf. Our analyses of field data also show the dominant influence of coastal geomorphology and topography on the extent of tsunami inundation.     

Late Pleistocene to Holocene sedimentation and hydrocarbon seeps on the continental shelf of a steep,tectonically active margin,southern California,USA

Small, steep, uplifting coastal watersheds are prolific sediment producers that contribute significantly to the global marine sediment budget. This study illustrates how sedimentation evolves in one such system where the continental shelf is largely sediment-starved, with most terrestrial sediment bypassing the shelf in favor of deposition in deeper basins. The Santa Barbara–Ventura coast of southern California, USA, is considered a classic area for the study of active tectonics and of Tertiary and Quaternary climatic evolution, interpretations of which depend upon an understanding of sedimentation patterns. High-resolution seismic-reflection data over >570 km² of this shelf show that sediment production is concentrated in a few drainage basins, with the Ventura and Santa Clara River deltas containing most of the upper Pleistocene to Holocene sediment on the shelf. Away from those deltas, the major factor controlling shelf sedimentation is the interaction of wave energy with coastline geometry. Depocenters containing sediment 5–20 m thick exist opposite broad coastal embayments, whereas relict material (bedrock below a regional unconformity) is exposed at the sea floor in areas of the shelf opposite coastal headlands. Locally, natural hydrocarbon seeps interact with sediment deposition either to produce elevated tar-and-sediment mounds or as gas plumes that hinder sediment settling. As much as 80% of fluvial sediment delivered by the Ventura and Santa Clara Rivers is transported off the shelf (some into the Santa Barbara Basin and some into the Santa Monica Basin via Hueneme Canyon), leaving a shelf with relatively little recent sediment accumulation. Understanding factors that control large-scale sediment dispersal along a rapidly uplifting coast that produces substantial quantities of sediment has implications for interpreting the ancient stratigraphic record of active and transform continental margins, and for inferring the distribution of hydrocarbon resources in relict shelf deposits.     

A Record of Palaeo-Tsunami in the Indian Ocean

The history of catastrophic events on the Indian coast helps us to understand the frequency and magnitude of the tsunamis that occurred in the Indian Ocean. These catastrophic events have changed the coastal landscape and have left significant records for further studies. These rare events have occurred in the Indian Ocean. There have been megatsunamigenic events in the past due to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Those events due to earthquakes have proved more catastrophic than the volcanic activities. There has been limited official records of the causality and magnitude of palaeo-tsunamigenic events. These have been studied using the various proxies. The rate of sedimentation is a proportional tool to study the magnitude of a tsunami and this has proved to be a successful tool along with foraminiferal assemblages. Causes for a tsunami to occur are by and large, the subduction zone earthquakes of the Indian plate has been the most common source for tsunami in the Indian Ocean. More often the Andaman and Nicobar and the Indonesian islands have been vulnerable to tsunami than the mainland of India and Sri Lanka.

In summary, in the last 200 years at least three basin-wide tsunamis have occurred, with several smaller tsunami affecting one or more coastlines in the region. The December 2004 M-9 tsunami seems to have been the largest and most destructive in the last two centuries, suggesting most tsunami are likely to be smaller but still allowing the possibility that even larger tsunami could be generated in propitious circumstances.     

Scenarios of local tsunamis in the China Seas by Boussinesq model

The Okinawa Trench in the East China Sea and the Manila Trench in the South China Sea are considered to be the regions with high risk of potential tsunamis induced by submarine earthquakes. Tsunami waves will impact the southeast coast of China if tsunamis occur in these areas. In this paper, the horizontal two-dimensional Boussinesq model is used to simulate tsunami generation, propagation, and runnp in a domain with complex geometrical boundaries. The temporary varying bottom boundary condition is adopted to describe the initial tsunami waves motivated by the submarine faults. The Indian Ocean tsunami is simulated by the numerical model as a validation case. The time series of water elevation and runup on the beach are compared with the measured data from field survey. The agreements indicate that the Boussinesq model can be used to simulate tsunamis and predict the waveform and runup. Then, the hypothetical tsunamis in the Okinawa Trench and the Manila Trench are simulated by the numerical model. The arrival time and maximum wave height near coastal cities are predicted by the model. It turns out that the leading depression N-wave occurs when the tsunami propagates in the continental shelf from the Okinawa Trench. The scenarios of the tsunami in the Manila Trench demonstrate significant effects on the coastal area around the South China Sea.     

Reconstructing tsunami run-up from the characteristics of tsunami deposits on the Thai Andaman Coast

Tsunamis can leave deposits on the land surface they inundate. The characteristics of tsunami deposits can be used to calculate tsunami run-up height and velocity. This paper presents a reconstruction of tsunami run-up from tsunami deposit characteristics in a simple mathematical model. The model is modified and applied to reconstruct tsunami run-ups at Ao Kheuy beach and Khuk Khak beach, Phangnga province, Thailand. The input parameters are grain-size and maximum run-up distance of the sediment. The reconstructed run-up heights are 4.16–4.91 m at Ao Kheuy beach and 5.43–9.46 m at Khuk Khak beach. The estimated run-up velocities (maximum velocity) at the still water level are 12.78–19.21 m/s. In the area located 70–140 m inland to the end of run-up inundation, estimated mean run-up velocities decrease from approximately 1.93 m/s to 0 m/s. Reasonably good agreements are found between reconstructed and observed run-up heights. The tsunami run-up height and velocity can be used for risk assessment and coastal development programs in the tsunami affected area. The results show that the area from 0 to 140 m inland was flooded by high velocity run-ups and those run-up energies were dissipated mainly in this area. The area should be designated as either an area where settlement is not permitted or an area where effective protection is provided, for example with flood barriers or forest.     

Extreme storms in 2006–2007 on Shikotan Island and their impact on the coastal relief and deposits

This paper describes the results of investigations of the consequences of the storms on the Pacific coast of Shikotan Island that occurred on October 7–10, 2006 and January 6–8, 2007. These storms and their impact on the coastal zone can be considered as extreme events for the last 40–50 years. The heights and flooding area of the storm surges within bay coasts of different types were measured. The coastal relief’s changes are described. During the storms, a cover of deposits was formed having a size of up to 30 m outside the beach zone and up to 52 m in the near-mouth zones. The grain-size composition of the storm deposits is analyzed and their difference from other coastal facies, including tsunami sands, are established.     

Numerical investigation of tsunami-like wave hydrodynamic characteristics and its comparison with solitary wave

Solitary waves have been commonly used as an initial condition in the experimental and numerical modelling of tsunamis for decades. However, the main component of a tsunami waves acts at completely different spatial and temporal scales than solitary waves. Thus, use of solitary waves as approximation of a tsunami wave may not yield realistic model results, especially in the coastal region where the shoaling effect restrains the development of the tsunami wave. Alternatively, N-shaped waves may be used to give a more realistic approximation of the tsunami wave profile. Based on the superposition of the sech²(*) waves, the observed tsunami wave profile could be approximated with the N-shaped wave method, and this paper presents numerical simulation results based on the tsunami-like wave generated based on the observed tsunami wave profile measured in the Tohoku tsunami. This tsunami-like wave was numerically generated with an internal wave source method based on the two-phase incompressible flow model with a Volume of Fluid (VOF) method to capture the free surface, and a finite volume scheme was used to solve all the governing equations. The model is first validated for the case of a solitary wave propagating within a straight channel, by comparing its analytical solutions to model results. Further, model comparisons between the solitary and tsunami-like wave are then made for (a) the simulation of wave run-up on shore and (b) wave transport over breakwater. Comparisons show that use of these largely different waveform shapes as inputs produces significant differences in overall wave evolution, hydrodynamic load characteristics as well as velocity and vortex fields. Further, it was found that the solitary wave uses underestimated the total energy and hence underestimated the run-up distance.     

2015年9月16日智利Mw 8.3级地震:海啸波从近场到远场的特征分析

On September 16, 2015, an earthquake with magnitude of M_w 8.3 occurred 46 km offshore from Illapel, Chile,generating a 4.4-m local tsunami measured at Coquimbo. In this study, the characteristics of tsunami are presented by a combination of analysis of observations and numerical simulation based on sources of USGS and NOAA. The records of 16 DART buoys in deep water, ten tidal gauges along coasts of near-field, and ten coastal gauges in the far-field are studied by applying Fourier analyses. The numerical simulation based on nonlinear shallow water equations and nested grids is carried out to provide overall tsunami propagation scenarios, and the results match well with the observations in deep water and but not well in coasts closed to the epicenter. Due to the short distance to the epicenter and the shelf resonance of southern Peru and Chile, the maximum amplitude ranged from 0.1 m to 2 m, except for Coquimbo. In deep water, the maximum amplitude of buoys decayed from9.8 cm to 0.8 cm, suggesting a centimeter-scale Pacific-wide tsunami, while the governing period was 13–17 min and 32 min. Whereas in the far-field coastal region, the tsunami wave amplified to be around 0.2 m to 0.8 m,mostly as a result of run-up effect and resonance from coast reflection. Although the tsunami was relatively moderate in deep water, it still produced non-negligible tsunami hazards in local region and the coasts of farfield.     

Worst scenarios of tsunami effects along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt

Scenarios of tsunami effects represent a very useful technique for the definition and evaluation of tsunami hazard and risk for the Egyptian coast. This paper is an attempt to develop different worst scenarios of tsunamigenesis toward the Egyptian Coast for five segment localities along three different sub-regions (Hellenic Arc, Cyprean Arc and Levantine Coast) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. These segments are the southwest Hellenic Arc, southeast Hellenic Arc, northeast Hellenic Arc, west of Cyprean Arc and Levantine. For each of them, the scenario takes into account a seismic fault capable of generating an earthquake with magnitude equal to or larger than the highest magnitude registered in that region in historical times. Then the ensuing tsunamis are simulated numerically, highlighting the basic features of the wave propagation and roughly identifying the coastal sectors that are expected to suffer the heaviest tsunami effects. The output data indicated that the first wave of tsunamis from different segments attacked the nearest reference localities (city located nearest each segment) along the Egyptian shore between 28 and 50 min after an earthquake. Tsunamis from these earthquake scenarios produced maximum run-up heights ranging from 1.7 to 9.4 m at the shore. A Beirut Thrust scenario (Levantine segment) included the fact that only a small portion of the fault extended out into the sea, leading to a small effective tsunami source area. In contrast, the southwest Hellenic Arc segment (as in the A.D. 365 earthquake) has high displacement (15 m) and a long extensional fault, forming a highly effective tsunami source area.