欧洲景观生态学研究展望

随着土地利用变化的加剧以及社会经济体制的改变，欧洲传统景观生态学近切需要改革和创新。如何保持景观生态学在未来社会中的重要地位并发挥它解决实际问题的作用是摆在欧洲景观生态学家面前的迫切课题。介绍了欧洲景观生态学目前的研究热点，对未来欧洲景观生态学的发展趋势、研究框架和主要研究领域进行了展望，以期对中国景观生态不的发展有所借鉴。     

Groundwater protection in Mediterranean countries after the European water framework directive

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) has driven the protection of groundwater and characterization of water bodies. Development of appropriate and efficient approaches which consider the special features of the hydrologic regime is essential. The results of different projects that have been carried out to integrate characterization and protection of water bodies are summarized herein. In the Les eaux de la Mediterranée (AQUAMED) Project, applicability to the Mediterranean Region of guidelines provided by the European Commission to facilitate the WFD implementation has been verified. The Background criteria for the identification of groundwater thresholds (BRIDGE) Project developed a methodology to establish threshold values of pollutants contributing to the chemical status of groundwater bodies. This method has been applied to pollutants used to classify groundwater bodies as at risk of not achieving objectives of the WFD. Selected features of protection areas for drinking water and safeguard zones are analyzed, as well as the possibility of using wellhead protection areas.     

Limitation of using heat as a groundwater tracer to define aquifer properties: experiment in a large tank model

The implementation of the EU-Water Framework Directive (WFD) might also be considered an approach for the implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management in Europe. The WFD outlines the ambitious goal of attaining “good status” for Europe’s rivers, lakes, groundwater bodies and coastal waters by 2015 in accordance with clearly defined time lines and legally binding programmes of measures. EU member states submitted their WFD river basin management plans to the European Commission in March 2010. Almost all member states accomplished the formal implementation, but nations like Germany are far from achieving the “good status”. For Germany, exemptions have been claimed for 82 % of all surface water bodies and for 36 % of all groundwater bodies. According to the identified significant pressures and impacts, the German Federal States, the Federal government and the European Union will have to significantly increase the coordination and coherence of the policies in the field of agriculture, energy generation, transport (shipping) and production or use of chemicals. The next generation of river basin management plans may be used for the harmonisation of these topics and extend to the polluter-specific characterization of water body pressures and impacts, structures and methods of monitoring, allowing the differentiation of multiple stressors, the designation of heavily modified water bodies and the determination of good ecological potential, exemptions and their justification, coherent transregional management objectives and reporting issues. The present study focuses on the assessment of the status of German water bodies, the achievement of environmental objectives and the necessary measures required to meet the goals.     

Geology and rural landscapes in central Spain (Guadalajara, Castilla—La Mancha)

Methods commonly used in regional geological analysis were employed to study the visual landscapes of the Sigüenza–Molina de Aragón area (Spain). Landscape data were compiled to produce a landscape map and a photograph catalogue. Lithological composition, tectonic structure and recent erosive processes are the main factors controlling the visual landscapes. Territorial properties, such as colours and agricultural capacities, are controlled by these geological characteristics. The landscape map and the photographic catalogue is the main contribution of this paper. The first level of landscape classification distinguishes zones with dominance of either flat, concave or convex areas. Other parts of the territory are, however, composed of concave and convex combinations that originate hybrid orographic structures. In a second level of classification, several subdivisions for each of these types are established.     

西秦岭嘉陵江上游瞬时地貌发育特征

西秦岭位于青藏高原东北缘,是青藏高原晚新生代构造扩展的前缘部位。西秦岭地区发育的一系列河流水系作为高原物质向外扩展的载体,记录了高原扩展过程中的地貌演化信息。本文选取西秦岭嘉陵江上游的支流作为研究对象,以河流纵剖面的形态和陡峭指数的空间分布为基础数据,初步分析了嘉陵江上游的地貌特征及其影响因素。结果表明,嘉陵江上游地貌演化处于瞬时状态,裂点以上的低陡峭指数区域代表了残余地貌,裂点以下高陡峭指数区域是裂点响应基准面下降后形成的新地貌。通过对比区域岩性和降水条件发现,岩性和降水对河流裂点发育以及陡峭指数的影响是有限的,河流裂点的发育和陡峭指数的变化主要受控于区域构造抬升引起的基准面下降。陡峭指数的空间分布特征表明构造作用对地貌发育起了重要的塑造作用。西秦岭瞬时地貌的发育是对印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞汇聚以来的远程效应的响应。     

额济纳蒙古族民间景观格局反映的区域环境状况

以内蒙古额济纳旗为例,对当地土尔扈特蒙古族自18世纪初定牧于此开始,至20世纪之前形成的水域、植被和沙丘3大类蒙古族民间自然景观类型进行了研究.水域景观格局特征表明,相对于现代生态环境状况,在20世纪之前,额济纳冲积平原水环境较为优越,整个地区水域景观广布,地下水埋藏较浅.在植被景观格局方面,两河地区主要以胡杨-沙枣河岸林和河岸湿地为主;两湖地区主要以芦苇沼泽-芨芨草草甸和湖岸梭梭林为主;整个地区植被景观处于早期演替阶段.绿洲内部荒漠沙丘景观分布格局体现了干旱荒漠地区的景观基质特征.     

Large-scale GIS-based hydrogeological modeling of Flanders: a tool for groundwater management

For the implementation of the European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD), technological and scientific support are required. This paper presents a methodology to support a first step of the implementation of WFD, which is the delineation of groundwater bodies. The methodology consists of (1) the development of a complete and generally-accepted hydrogeological classification system for Flanders, named the HCOV code, (2) the development of a geographic information systems (GIS)-managed borehole database, and (3) the development of aquifer and aquitard models by means of a solid modeling approach. For each unit of the hydrogeological classification code for Flanders unit, GIS maps are generated for the three basic characteristics of hydrogeological layers: extent, base level and thickness, such that combined, the volume and extent of a hydrogeological layer is unambiguously defined. This GIS-based hydrogeological database has become a useful tool for groundwater management purposes and to provide the input for groundwater modeling.     

A conceptual model to integrate the regional context in landscape policy,management and contribution to rural development: Literature review and European case study evidence

Agri-environmental policies and planning influence agricultural landscape management, and thus the capacity to deliver landscape services and to contribute to rural viability. Numerous models and frameworks have been developed to improve comprehension of the mechanisms and interrelationships between policies, landscape and socio-economic values and benefits. As social-ecological systems, landscapes are closely depending from the socio-institutional and territorial context of the specific rural locality. The paper proposes an enhanced framework for assessing these mechanisms by acknowledging the critical role of the regional macro-environment. A literature review and the revisiting of evidence from eight European case studies are applied to establish a comprehensive understanding and exemplification of the links between the policies, landscape, ecosystem services and value flows. Results highlight the need for integrative, inter- and transdisciplinary research approaches. Efficient landscape policies require enhanced regional embeddedness and targeting, acknowledgement of user demands and the capability of regional community and governance structures for policy implementation and natural capital valorisation.     

The use of landscape evolution models in mining rehabilitation design

Landscape evolution models can be useful tools for the evaluation of rehabilitation designs for post-mining landscapes. When calibrated for the erodible material, landscape evolution models can predict sediment loss over entire landscapes (i.e. tonnes/hectare/year), method of erosion (i.e. slope wash, gullying) and also where on a hillslope erosion is likely to occur. The models provide the ability to examine simple hillslopes through to complex whole landscapes. These models can also be used for a probabilistic risk assessment of rehabilitation design for high-risk situations such as tailings dams. Importantly, unlike other erosion models they allow the eroded landscape to be visualised. This paper outlines the capabilities of the SIBERIA landscape evolution model for the rehabilitation of mining landscapes and proposes a probabilistic approach for risk assessment and site stability.     

How to assess hydromorphology? A comparison of Ukrainian and German approaches

Recently, the Ukrainian Western Bug water authorities developed a national field survey to assess the quality of river habitats. The Ukrainian government already cooperates with EU member states along transboundary rivers and also orientates itself towards the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). As a future application for EU membership is feasible, the water authorities started to implement WFD criteria into their national survey schemes including the assessment of rivers’ hydromorphology. This article compares two different hydromorphological survey methods to identify similarities and differences of the classification approaches with regard to the conformity of obtained outputs with the WFD demands. The field surveys, the Ukrainian (UA-FS) and the German (LAWA-FS), were applied in parallel on 14 river sections along the Western Bug River and parts of its tributaries. Results show a wide range of conformity, but also several differences between and gaps within all methods. The UA-FS generally lacks the idea of reference condition in rivers’ hydromorphology and the definition of different stream types or near-natural land uses. The UA-FS and the LAWA-FS approaches are similar with respect to their incorporated compartments and most main parameters, but differ in definition and interpretation of specific functional units and single parameters. Greatest similarities down to single parameters exist in aspects of land use, bank vegetation, currents diversity, and within-stream variation of water depths. Differences include the assessment and interpretation of lateral erosion, sinuosity, type and depth of profile, substrate diversity, as well as special structures of bank and riverbed. Overall, the LAWA-FS is more conservative in its rating than the UA-FS. Still, UA-FS can be regarded as an important improvement for a systematic and reliable monitoring of river hydromorphology in the Ukraine that will help to successfully engage with both the integrated water resources management and the WFD harmonisation process in the future.     

A framework for an optimised groundwater monitoring network and aggregated indicators

The implementation of the Water Framework Directive (EU 2000) requires a groundwater quality monitoring. It is used for characterisation of the ‘good’ chemical status of each groundwater body and for the restoration or protection purposes of those bodies already at ‘good’ status. Interpretative aspects are lying in the design of monitoring network and in the way of building global indicators. Attention is given here to the global chemical status of the groundwater bodies and to the role of diffuse pollution, much of which is brought via groundwater to surface water. Monitoring ‘local’ pollution associated with individual sites is not addressed. Groundwater bodies with different contrasted hydrogeology conditions, land use and topography have been considered to establish an approach for choosing an optimised monitoring network. Then, a quality assessment system has been developed and applied for qualifying the general status of each groundwater body. The use of non-dimensional indexes allows us to process with all kinds of chemical parameters in a normalised way and, by means of adequate aggregation rules, to qualify the general quality status of a groundwater body. The obtained diagnostic, even if not fully validated, is closely linked to the pragmatic objectives contained in the EU Water Directive.     

景观生态学在城市规划和管理中的应用

城市是典型的人工景观，空间结构上属于紧密汇聚型，功能上表现为高能流、高容量和文化上的多样性。城市景观生态研究包括城市空间结构与生态过程，城市景观风貌与城市生态建设，城市景观规划是其最直接的应用。首先论述了城市景观质量与价值评价，包括景观美学评价与景观视觉容量。城市空间结构和景观规划原则是该文论述的主题，包括城市空间布局、城市空间扩展的廊道效应以及城市绿地系统的空间结构分析；以上海和广州市的绿地系统为例进行了重点介绍，最后对于城乡交错带的景观变化进行分析，用景观格局及其动态来描述城乡交错带的城市化过程特点，介绍了上海和沈阳的典型研究。     

山东省损毁山体景观影响度分析

损毁山体严重影响城市和交通沿线景观,景观影响度可作为一个综合指标来反映损毁山体对城市景观的影响程度。应用专家评分综合评判法结合地理信息系统确定景观影响度分级标准,对损毁山体进行景观影响程度的评价与分析,得出景观影响度分类结果,为损毁山体的治理规划和有序整治提供科学依据。     

城市风貌规划中水系风貌规划方法研究

水系风貌是城市风貌的重要组成部分,是城市风貌规划中的一个重要环节.在对水系风貌规划的重要性和对实例的分析研究后,提出了城市风貌规划中水系风貌规划的方法及内容:展现城市风貌的亲水性,满足人们对水的眷恋;赋予水系深层内涵,让水系更具有文化韵味,体现城市风貌;在合理利用的情况下并对其进行有利的保护,让其成为可持续资源.     

Landscape care paradoxes: Swedish landscape care arrangements in a European context

Contemporary European agriculture has a number of additional aims beside of food production, such as safeguarding environmental services and conservation values. Substantial efforts at official levels are aimed towards sustainable development but also towards maintaining values of what may be termed vanishing landscapes. Selected areas and landscape features are set aside for protection or restoration. Individual efforts of this type have a long history in Sweden, and the issue has recently received increased attention, primarily due to more ambitious government goals concerning biodiversity conservation and Sweden’s ratification of the European Landscape Convention. This has resulted in an increased scientific and official interest in vanishing values in the rural landscape, where parts of Eastern Europe, such as the Maramures district in Romania, have been used as model examples of land use regimes which in the past was common in Sweden. In this context, the dilemma of romanticizing peasants’ use of land is highlighted and discussed more than has hitherto been done. This paper sheds light on some paradoxes inherent in official policies in relation to land use practices concerning the management of rural landscapes in Sweden, and relates the Swedish situation to a contrasting example of landscape practice in Romania. We discuss the concept of landscape care in relation to the construction and perception of landscape values and valuable landscapes through the lenses of rural realities and official policies. When Swedish authorities engage in the promotion of landscape care, they tend to work with slices of land, specific predefined values and individual farmers, and they often disregard the need to treat the landscape as a socio-ecological complex dynamic in space and time. We discuss how environmental policy generally could be improved through the adoption of a more inclusive and flexible approach towards aiding the different aims inherent in multifunctional rural landscapes.     

Application of groundwater sustainability indicators to the carbonate aquifer of the Sierra de Becerrero (Southern Spain)

The objective of this study was to test the applicability of groundwater sustainability indicators defined by UNESCO, together with the International Academy of Environmental Sciences (IAES), the International Association of Hydrogeology (IAH) Group on Groundwater Indicators and the Geological Survey of Spain (IGME), to the aquifer scale. We selected four main indicators based on their relevance in the field of groundwater sustainability and because they proved to be the most reliable, based on the data collection and methodology utilized. These indicators were applied to a small—26 km² of permeable outcrops—carbonate aquifer situated in the province of Seville (southern Spain), which has semi-arid climate conditions (500 mm/year). The integral application of all these indicators in this particular groundwater body leads us to conclude that, at present, the aquifer is undergoing intensive use. Therefore, the exploitation of its water resources is surpassing the threshold of sustainability when both the quantity and the quality of the groundwater are taken into consideration. The continued increase in exploitation generates a descending trend in the evolution of the piezometric levels, a consequence of adaptation to the new hydrodynamic situation, and also results in exhaustion of the springs that drain the aquifer in undisturbed conditions. At the same time, there is a trend of increasing salinity in the groundwater and a risk of contamination by nitrate which, according to the EU Water Framework Directive and the Groundwater Daughter Directive (EU Official Journal of the European Communities L327, 2000; EU Official Journal of the European Communities L372/19, 2006), should be controlled and reduced. In the future, application of the methodology described here may prove useful for the evaluation of similar systems, either in southern Spain or in other countries with semi-arid climates.     

Study on the oasis landscape fragmentation in northwestern China by using remote sensing data and GIS: a case study of Jinta oasis

The purpose of this study is to investigate the oasis landscape fragmentation in northwestern China’s arid regions. Landscape maps of Jinta oasis were compiled by using GIS based on Landsat TM data of 1990 and 2000. Landscape indexes for evaluating fragmentation are patch area, patch density, corridor density and split index. Results indicated many difference. First, between the years 1990 and 2000, the landscape fragmentation in Jinta oasis decreased slightly. Second, the area of the matrix decreased at the class level. The landscape fragmentation of the matrix (bare soil) increased as a result of increased influence of human activities on matrix and was opposite to the irrigated farmland whose area is larger and more aggregated in 2000 than in 1990. Third, dense corridor system is one of the most prominent characteristics of the arid regions. It is one of the key factors resulting in the landscape fragmentation; especially the fragmentation within the same patch types. The corridor density of irrigated farmland, residential area and forestland were quite large in Jinta oasis both in 1990 and 2000. The pattern of Jinta oasis is characterized by agricultural oasis embedded in Gobi and in the desert, where the ecosystem was disturbed strongly by the intense human activities.     

长江水文发展及展望

长江水文监测的水文、水质、河道信息,水文气象预报、水文水资源分析评价成果是维护河流健康的基础支撑信息。加强水文水资源监测站网的规划,加快水文测报现代化建设,提升水文水资源预报能力,大力开展长江水文水资源变化规律研究,促进水文事业发展,是长江水文的发展方向。     

Water quality for different uses in the main groundwater bodies of the Guadalquivir River Watershed,Atlantic Basin,Spain

This work was made to asses the groundwater quality in relation to agricultural uses and/or public supply in the main groundwater bodies (GWB) of the Guadalquivir River Basin (southern Spain) according to the recommendations of the Water Framework Directive. The study was made for both carbonate and sedimentary-rock/alluvial GWBs of the Basin in order to detect variations in the groundwater quality as a function of the hydrogeological functioning, among others. Groundwater samples were collected from selected and representative wells and drills in each GWB. The results obtained from the analyses of major ions, pH, SC₂₅ and nitrate reveal that the groundwater in carbonate aquifers is suitable for both agricultural and domestic uses according to the FAO classification. The quality of water from sedimentary-rock and alluvial GWBs is medium for agricultural purposes and inappropriate for human supplies in most cases due to excessive content of chloride, sulphate and nitrate. The use of well-known hydrochemical indicators such as SAR, RSC or Gibb’s ratio allowed us to predict groundwater quality in the main GWBs of the Guadalquivir watershed. Therefore, this methodology proves to be a useful tool to correctly manage and find strategic water reservoirs in an area that is going to be particularly threatened by climate change in the near future.     

A comparative study on nitrogen-concentration dynamics in surface water in a heterogeneous landscape

With point-source pollution controlled effectively, nonpoint-source pollution, especially that resulting from agricultural land, has become the main factor affecting surface water. Much attention has been focused on the impact of fertilizer and pesticide application, wastewater irrigation, and land management on pollutant transport. However, landscape pattern also plays an important role in pollutant transport and detention. Landscape types may be classified into two parts: "source" and "sink" landscapes, based on their functions in pollutant transport and detention. As a major contributor to eutrophication of waterbodies, nitrogen loss with runoff has received particular attention when studying nonpoint-source pollution. In this study, four watersheds in the upper parts of the Yuqiao Reservoir Basin, Zuihua, Hebei Province, China, were chosen in order to study the relationship between landscape pattern and nitrogen-concentration dynamics. The results indicate that (1) nitrogen concentration in surface water within different seasons in the rainfall-normal year is higher than that in the rainfall-deficit year and (2) the variation of nitrogen concentration within different seasons in the rainfall-deficit year is smaller compared with that in the rainfall-normal year in which two types of seasonal variation on nitrogen concentration are presented. The first variation occurs when nitrogen concentration is lowest in the dry season, and rises rapidly from the dry season to rainy season and then declines quickly from the rainy season to mean-flow season. This mainly occurs in those areas where most "source" landscapes are close to the monitored waterbody. The second variation occurs when nitrogen concentration is low in the dry season, increases rapidly in the rainy season but does not reach its peak value until the mean flow season. The second variation occurs in those areas where "source" landscape types are spread over the whole watershed. There is no clear relationship between watershed shape, relative importance of landscape types, and nitrogen concentration; however, the spatial distribution of "source" and "sink" landscape types in the watershed has a strong impact on the nitrogen concentration in surface water.