Volunteered geographic information: future research directions motivated by critical, participatory, and feminist GIS

New interactive web services are dramatically altering the way in which ordinary citizens can create digital spatial data and maps, individually and collectively, to produce new forms of digital spatial data that some term ‘volunteered geographic information’ (VGI). This article examines the early literature on this phenomenon, illustrating its shared propositions that these new technologies are part of shifts in the social and technological processes through which digital spatial data are produced, with accompanying implications for the content and characteristics of geospatial data, and the social and political practices promoted through their use. I illustrate how these debates about VGI conceive of spatial data as socially embedded, and suggest ways in which future research might productively draw upon conceptualizations from participatory, feminist, and critical GIS research that have emerged from similar foundations.     

Reconceptualizing the role of the user of spatial data infrastructure

Spatial data infrastructures, which are Internet-based mechanisms for the coordinated production, discovery, and use of geospatial information in the digital environment, have diffused worldwide in the last two decades. Currently, there are about one hundred spatial data infrastructures at the national level and many other at supra- and sub-national levels. These contemporary spatial data infrastructures operate with two main assumptions: formal organizations are the producers and suppliers of geospatial information; users are the passive recipients of information. The recent phenomenon of volunteered geographic information departs from these assumptions. In this paper, we argue that reconceptualizing the user of a spatial data infrastructure can accommodate this new phenomenon. Such a reconceptualization creates a middle ground between spatial data infrastructure and volunteered geographic information, which has important implications for future research.     

Net earthquake hazard and elements at risk (NEaR) map creation for city of Istanbul via spatial multi-criteria decision analysis

The creation of earthquake hazard maps requires various datasets with selected attenuation relations. Based on the selected attenuation relation, the calculation time varies from half an hour to a couple of days. The length of time needed to create an earthquake hazard map also depends on the resolution of the resulting map. The time gets longer as the resolution of the resulting earthquake hazard map gets higher. The basic form of an attenuation relation requires complex calculation algorithms including geospatial information related to the region of interest. Nowadays, next-generation attenuation (NGA) models are introduced to generate more realistic earthquake hazard maps. However, the more complex the attenuation relation is, the longer time will be required to create a hazard map. This paper offers a new method to create high-resolution earthquake hazard maps, faster than using traditional attenuation relation methods, by using an analytic hierarchy process of spatial multi-criteria decision analysis and geographic information systems. This method has been generated and tested for the city of Istanbul. The resulting maps are compared with the earthquake hazard maps created for the city of Istanbul by using the NGA model of Boore and Atkinson (in Boore–Atkinson NGA ground motion relations for the geometric mean horizontal component of peak and spectral ground motion parameters (trans: Engineering Co, University of California B). Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center 2007). A second output of this paper is a map of the elements at risk (EaR) for the population and buildings of Istanbul, and the introduction of a new approach of net elements at risk (NEaR).     

Visualizing the relationship between geographic and social media network space

This research explores the relationship between geographic and social media network space. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to perform a geo-enhanced network analysis and to create an example social media network using a select location identified in the study area as important in the results of the geo-enhanced network analysis. A straightforward, non-technical example is provided to the readers on how location data and social media network data can be overlaid to visualize potential local firm to firm and firm to customer connections in geographic and social media network space. An example of how to identify these potential connections locally through social media networks using Twitter is demonstrated. By considering the geographic location in network structures, it is possible to convey the role distance plays in discerning prospective local social media marketing partners, and also track the spread of information flow through social media networks.

     

高端计算机网络共享系统支撑的科学和工程革新

科学和工程研究被计算、信息和通讯技术的持续进步推动着，被今天自身研究增加的复杂性、范围和尺度的挑战拉动着。数字计算、数据、信息和网络以及计算机模拟技术的应用，正在形成替代和拓展理论/分析、实验/观察2个经典的研究方法去创建新的学科的趋势。近来多种趋势表明一个如何创造、传播和存储科学和工程知识更伟大、更迅速的真正变革即将到来，美国应当把握这个机遇、承担责任，去整合和拓展数字革命的成果，服务于下一代的科学和工程研究及相关教育。高端计算机网络共享系统的关键在于将数据、信息、工具、仪器，包括超级计算、存储以及交流等综合性的知识资源完全服务于具体的研究群体，提供新的途径，使研究人员在发现和探索研究上获得更多更好的信息，使得研究小组跨时间、区域、部门甚至学科间实现共享和协作。坚持美国学术研究团体所使用的高端科学计算必须是最先进的，国际科学基金会与其它适当团体机构间的合作应该为创造和维持现代数据驱动科学研究所必需的重要数据资料档案库负主要责任2个原则，并通过建立NSF内部组织、科学和工程组织来保障系统的实施。这是美国国家科学基金会(NSF)信息基础设施（Cyberinfrustructure）高级咨询组的报告《通过信息基础设施促进科学和工程的革命》的主要内容。      

Location-based services,conspicuous mobility,and the location-aware future

The production and consumption of geographic information is becoming a more mobile practice, with more corporate actors challenging the traditional stronghold of Esri- and government-based geospatial developments. What can be considered a geographic information system has expanded to include web-based technologies like Google Earth/Maps, as well as more recent developments of Microsoft’s Bing Maps and the mobile version of ArcGIS available for the iPhone. In addition to these developments, a discursive shift toward ‘location’ is occurring across the Internet industry. Location has become the new buzzword for social-spatial strategies to target consumers. As reported in 2010, venture capitalists have, since 2009, invested $115 million into ‘location start-ups’ – software companies that provide location-based services to mobile computing consumers (Miller and Wortham, 2010). Applications like Foursquare, Loopt, Gowalla, and most recently, Facebook Places allow users to ‘check-in’ at restaurants, bars, gyms, retail outlets, and offices, thereby sharing their location within their social network. These developments enable consumers to (re)discover their proximities to products, while feeding a desire for making known one’s everyday movements. Here, I discuss the development of location-based services as the proliferation of a peculiar form of geographic information: conspicuous mobility. Through discussion of a recent gathering of location-aware software professionals and through analysis of discourses that emerge over a battle between ‘check in’ companies, I sketch an area of study that explores the implications of these emerging geographic information ‘systems’, and new everyday cartographers.     

Volunteered Geographic Information constructions in a contested terrain: A case of OpenStreetMap in China

The recent explosive growth of user-generated geographic information has drawn significant attention from GIS scholars and human geographers. Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) here refers to a key component of such a phenomenon, comprising both a range of practices of geographic information production and dissemination by volunteers as well as new forms of geospatial data produced and curated through various interactive online platforms and mobile devices such as OpenStreetMap (OSM) and Google Maps. VGI constructions have raised questions on spatial knowledge, power, and context. Through a study that examines social constructions of OSM in China, this paper makes two contributions to the existing literature: providing a political economic account of VGI constructions in China and exploring legalities in VGI research. Informed by research in critical GIS, this paper traces political economic transitions in relation to OSM constructions and examines OSM contributors' experiences and how these experiences constitute OSM development and usage. Drawing upon law and society research, this paper investigates how OSM mappers encounter the state's regulatory scheme of online mapping. This legality perspective of spatial data production and usage is a topic rarely explored in VGI studies. With interview data and document analysis, this paper unravels processes of powerful state institutional arrangements to control and invest in VGI simultaneously, entrepreneurs' interest in developing location-based services using VGI data, and experiences from a tech-savvy group in exploring and making VGI. While individual experiences vary, they show efforts of questioning embedded power relations shaping spatial data production in these continuously evolving, contested technoscientific and social landscapes.     

Doline probability map using logistic regression and GIS technology in the central Ebro Basin (Spain)

In the surroundings of Zaragoza, karstification processes are especially intense in covered karst areas where fluvial terraces lie directly on Tertiary evaporites. Since the beginning of Quaternary, these processes have lead to the development of collapse and subsidence dolines with a wide range of sizes, which have significant economic impacts. To reduce economic impact and increase safety, a regional analysis of this phenomenon is needed for spatial management. Therefore, a probability map of dolines was developed using logistic regression and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. This paper covers the selection of input data, manipulation of data using the GIS technology, and the use of logistic regression to generate a doline probability map. The primary variable in the doline development in this area is geomorphology, represented by the location of endorheic areas and different terrace levels. Secondary variables are the presence of irrigation and the water table gradient.     

Mapping ethnic diversity in highland Northern Vietnam

In this paper we initially present a critical review of a range of ethnological maps produced over the last 130 years for highland northern Vietnam. In particular we illustrate the many difficulties faced when trying to represent mosaics of ethnic highland minority groups on two dimensional maps. Such historical maps included no attempts to bring topographic details into the picture, an idea that would have been virtually impossible anyway, given the cartographic technologies at the time. Yet by not including such details or not representing them clearly, a partial image of these populations has been created that, over time, has become a standardised representation. Therefore, as a more systematic approach to the analysis of these highland minority groups, we present recent attempts to create more functional maps and models for the northern Vietnam province of Lao Cai, using modern cartographic techniques and geographic information systems. Utilising tools such as digital cartography and digital elevation models a wealth of information can be gained which has the potential, amongst other possible uses, to allow for a greater understanding and sensitivity regarding ethnic minority groups in Northern Vietnam, and their use of the local environment. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The credibility of volunteered geographic information

The proliferation of information sources as a result of networked computers and other interconnected devices has prompted significant changes in the amount, availability, and nature of geographic information. Among the more significant changes is the increasing amount of readily available volunteered geographic information. Although volunteered information has fundamentally enhanced geographic data, it has also prompted concerns with regard to its quality, reliability, and overall value. This essay situates these concerns as issues of information and source credibility by (a) examining the information environment fostering collective information contribution, (b) exploring the environment of information abundance, examining credibility and related notions within this environment, and leveraging extant research findings to understand user-generated geographic information, (c) articulating strategies to discern the credibility of volunteered geographic information (VGI), including relevant tools useful in this endeavor, and (d) outlining specific research questions germane to VGI and credibility.     

SOA架构在城市地理信息公共服务平台建设中的应用研究

随着地理信息的广泛应用,迫切需要建立地理信息公共服务平台,实现不同行业和部门的基础地理信息数据共享,为各层次用户提供地理信息服务。本文简要介绍了SOA架构,探讨了基于SOA架构,采用OGC制定的地理信息服务标准构建城市地理信息公共服务平台的思路,并通过实例验证了该方案的可行性。     

基于GML的WFS研究与实现

网络要素服务(webfeature services, WFS) 是空间数据互操作的一个重要组成部分, 能为不同GIS数据格式提供要素级的交互.基于地理标志语言(geography markup language, GML) 的WFS能够为Web环境下的空间数据互操作技术和空间信息处理互操作技术提供简单而又有效的基本数据访问、要素编辑(包括添加、删除、更新)、要素的组合查询.通过研究开放式GIS联盟(open GIS consortiumInc., OGC) 的标准规范, 使用MAPGIS基础平台和.NET编译环境实现WFS, 使用XML传输和存储地理信息, 其中包括属性和地理要素的几何属性.最后给出了以MAPGIS平台为基础的基于GML的WFS的体系结构和实现方法.WFS只解决了空间数据互操作的一部分, 为了更好的进行空间数据互操作, WCS、WCTS的实现是必不可少的.      

An approach for assessing soil health: a practical guide for optimal ecological management

How to integrate environmental geographic information and biodiversity data combined with management measures to effectively assess soil health is still an unresolved problem. This paper suggests an approach for systematically estimating soil quality and guiding ecological management. First, canonical correspondence analysis is used to predict the distributions of plant species or microorganism communities, principle pollutants and environmental variables from which spatial and environmental data are extracted by the geographic information system (GIS). Secondly, geostatistical methodologies are then used to estimate and quantify the spatial distribution characteristic of the species and pollutants and to create maps of spatial uncertainty and hazard assessment through ArcGis technology. Finally, redundancy analysis provides a suggestion about better management strategy and environmental factor for improving soil health and biodiversity. The combination of these methods with “3S” techniques as an assessment approach effectively meets the challenges for estimation and management in different soil environments.     

Using small cities to understand the crowd behind OpenStreetMap

As businesses and governments integrate OpenStreetMap (OSM) into their services in ways that require comprehensive coverage, there is a need to expand research outside of major urban areas and consider the strength of the map in smaller cities. A place-specific inquiry into the OSM contributor sets in small cities allows an intimate look at user motives, locations, and editing habits that are readily described in the OSM metadata and user profile pages, but often missed by aggregate studies of OSM data. Using quantitative and qualitative evidence from the OSM history of five small cities across North and South America, I show that OSM is not accumulating large local corpuses of editors outside of major urban areas. In these more remote places OSM remains largely at the mercy of an unpredictable mix of casual contributions, business interests, feature-specific “hobbyists”, bots, and importers, all passing through the map at different scales for different reasons. I present a typology of roles played by contributors as they expand and fix OSM in casual, systematic, and automated fashion. I argue that these roles are too complex to be conceptualized with the traditional “citizen as sensor” model of understanding volunteered geographic information. While some contributors are driven by pride of place, others are more interested in improving map quality or ensuring certain feature types are represented. Institutions considering the use of OSM data in their projects should be aware of these varied influences and their potential effects on the data.     

Mapping wildfire evacuation vulnerability in the western US: the limits of infrastructure

Residential development in fire-prone areas of the western United States is a growing concern. The steady addition of homes to this region places more people and property at risk each year. In many areas housing is increasing without commensurate improvements in the road network, particularly in regards to the number, capacity and arrangement of community exit roads. This results in steadily increasing minimum evacuation times, as each additional household contributes to potential evacuation travel-demand in a wildfire. The goal of this research is to perform a comprehensive geographic search of the western U.S. for communities in wildfire-prone areas that may represent difficult evacuations due to constrained egress. The problem is formulated as a spatial search for fire-prone communities with a high ratio of households-to-exits and solved using methods in spatial optimization and geographic information systems (GIS). The results reveal an initial inventory and ranking of the most difficult wildfire evacuations in the West. These communities share a unique vulnerability in that all residents may not be able to evacuate in scenarios with short warning time. For this reason they represent prime candidates for emergency planning, and monitoring their development is a growing need.     

Geostatistical Mapping with Continuous Moving Neighborhood

An issue that often arises in such GIS applications as digital elevation modeling (DEM) is how to create a continuous surface using a limited number of point observations. In hydrological applications, such as estimating drainage areas, direction of water flow is easier to detect from a smooth DEM than from a grid created using standard interpolation programs. Another reason for continuous mapping is esthetic; like a picture, a map should be visually appealing, and for some GIS users this is more important than map accuracy. There are many methods for local smoothing. Spline algorithms are usually used to create a continuous map, because they minimize curvature of the surface. Geostatistical models are commonly used approaches to spatial prediction and mapping in many scientific disciplines, but classical kriging models produce noncontinuous surfaces when local neighborhood is used. This motivated us to develop a continuous version of kriging. We propose a modification of kriging that produces continuous prediction and prediction standard error surfaces. The idea is to modify kriging systems so that data outside a specified distance from the prediction location have zero weights. We discuss simple kriging and conditional geostatistical simulation, models that essentially use information about mean value or trend surface. We also discuss how to modify ordinary and universal kriging models to produce continuous predictions, and limitations using the proposed models.     

江西省交通岩土工程信息系统的设计与开发

交通岩土工程信息系统在国民经济和交通工程建设中发挥着重要作用.利用地理信息系统(GIS)技术和计算机技术构建交通岩土工程信息系统是近年来国内交通领域内的研究热点和前沿之一.江西省交通岩土工程信息系统采用组件式地理信息系统(GIS)和计算机技术,并从系统的软硬件设计、系统总体结构设计、系统的功能设计等方面.探讨了江西省交...     

Mapping landslide susceptibility in Travis County, Texas, USA

A geographic information system (GIS) was used to construct a landslide hazard map for Travis County, Texas. The County is experiencing rapid growth, and development has encroached into unstable terrain that is vulnerable to landslides. Four layers of data were superimposed to create the landslide hazard map. Slope was given the most emphasis, followed by geology, vegetation, and proximity to faults. The final map shows areas of low, medium, and high landslide susceptibility. Areas of high susceptibility occupy stream and reservoir banks, rock escarpments, and agricultural land. The landslide hazard map can be a useful geologic criterion for land use planning. Planners can use the map to allocate appropriate land uses to unstable terrain, and to identify existing structures at risk from landslide activity. The methods presented in this paper can be adapted to other counties in the U.S. and elsewhere. Results of this study suggest that geographic information systems can effectively compile and overlay several data layers relevant to landslide hazards.     

数字城市基础地理信息数据处理

数字城市以地理空间框架为定位基准,集成城市自然、社会、经济、人文、环境等综合信息,基于网络基础设施实现城市信息的广泛共享。数字城市代表了城市信息化的发展方向,是推动整个国家信息化的重要手段。数字城市地理空间框架既是一城市的空间基础信息平台,也是国家空间数据基础设施的基本组成部分,它是信息集成的载体、是数字城市赖以实现的不可或缺的基础支撑。     

The geological sources of Hg contamination in Kejimkujik National Park,Nova Scotia,Canada: a GIS approach

Recent studies have shown that mercury (Hg) levels in many fish from remote lakes exceed the recommended guidelines for human consumption. Most of these studies conclude that the source of contamination lies in the atmosphere. Kejimkujik National Park (KNP), Nova Scotia, Canada, is considered to be a pristine ecosystem in which fish and loon Hg levels are anomalously high. Studies in the park have shown that atmospheric Hg concentrations may not be high enough to account for the Hg levels in the biota, indicating that the park may be an unusual system in terms of Hg distribution and migration. In an attempt to summarise and synthesise the numerous Hg data sets which have been produced in the park over the last 5-10 years, a geographic information systems (GIS) approach was used to create a common database using the watersheds in the park as the common parameter. By using a GIS database, new relationships and correlations are established and the spatial distribution of Hg levels is more readily evaluated and quantified. The results indicate that geological sources of Hg, arising from biotite-rich granite rocks, may play a larger role in the contamination of the park than previously thought.