PATTERNS OF HORSE DEVOLUTION AND TRACTOR DIFFUSION IN ILLINOIS, 1920–1982*

The concern is to extend certain diffusion concepts to devolution. In this example, tractors replaced horses because tractors had advantages over horses. Logistic curves depict well the temporal rate of tractor acceptance and of horse abandonment. Although differing somewhat in time, the spatial patterns of adoption and abandonment are similar. They centered early in east central Illinois, a prosperous agricultural core, and spread outward. Laggard counties as well as persister ones were mainly in southern Illinois, a peripheral area with a relatively impoverished agriculture. Influences on the patterns include farm value, size, and type and land quality.     

1960～2017年华北地区气候生长季变化特征及成因分析

基于华北地区1960~2017年逐日气温数据,运用Mann-Kendall非参数检验、Morlet小波分析和R/S分析等方法,分析了华北地区气候生长季指标生长季开始（GSS）、生长季结束（GSE）、生长季长度（GSL）、生长季内≥10℃活动积温（AT10）及其对应的天数（DT10）的时空变化特征及其影响因素。结果表明:① 华北地区GSS呈显著的提前趋势,变化速率为-2.43 d/10a,GSL呈现出明显延长,AT10和DT10表现为显著增加趋势,变化速率分别为2.95 d/10 a、67.14℃/10a和2.31 d/10a,GSE变化趋势不明显。近60 a来华北地区GSL的延长主要归因于GSS的明显提前。② 生长季指标变化趋势在空间上存在明显差异,其中GSS与GSL,AT10与DT10变化趋势的空间分布格局较为相似。③ 生长季指标普遍在20世纪90年代中后期发生了明显的突变,GSS、GSE和GSL的突变年份为1994~1995年,AT10和DT10的突变年份为1997~1998年。④ 近60 a来华北地区生长季指标变化存在着2~3 a、5~6 a的主周期。生长季指标Hurst指数都大于0.7,表现为较强的持续性,其过去变化趋势将在未来继续延续。⑤ 北大西洋年代际振荡指数（AMO）是影响近60 a来华北地区生长季指标（GSS、GSE与AT10）变化的主要大气环流因子。     

MYTHOLOGIES OF THE GRID IN THE EMPIRE CITY, 1811–2011*

In this article, I examine the performative dimensions of historical narration as a form of modern mythmaking by reconsidering conventional narratives on the “origins” of Manhattan's grid street plan of 1811. The historical mythology of the grid espoused in canonical readings of the Plan of 1811 relies extensively on a rearticulation of the official explanation that the grid's designers provided in a foundational text known as the “Commissioners’ Remarks”. I argue that such accounts result in an extraordinarily narrow and formulaic interpretation of the utilitarian motives and intentions behind the city's grid plan, one that reinforces a form of “morphological essentialism”. To support this argument, I shift the focus of attention beyond the “Commissioners’ Remarks” in order to complicate readings of the intentionality that gave rise to the 1811 street plan. I conclude by suggesting that the mythic search for the “origins” of the grid in the realm of founding intentions can most effectively be challenged by drawing attention to the proliferation of countermyths of gridded space.     

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS OF TALUS ACTIVITY – A LICHENOMETRIC APPROACH IN THE STUBAIER ALPS,AUSTRIA

Lichenometric measurements using Rhizocarpon ssp. were carried out on 20 talus slopes in the cirques of the Finstertal valley (Austria) at an elevation of 2300–3000 m a.s.l. The aim was to assess activity patterns on selected slopes and between the slopes of the study area, to find evidence of rockfall pulses in the last centuries and to calculate rockwall retreat rates. A calibration curve was derived from five sites of known age and adapted to the prevailing size of talus boulders. We measured the five largest lichens on more than 300 boulders and the percentage coverage of Rhizocarpon‐free clasts on more than 1000 test fields. Most of the investigated talus cones are characterized by moderate rockfall supply, with the apex being more active than the talus foot and moderate redistribution by avalanche and debris flows. Considerably enhanced activity was found under rockwalls influenced by permafrost, particularly on the north faces at an elevation of >2600 m a.s.l. At currently moderately active sites, boulder falls seem to have been slightly more frequent in the late nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century. In positions where permafrost is expected in the rockwalls, a weak maximum in the late nineteenth century and highly active present‐day conditions were found, the latter being assigned to current permafrost melt. Rockwall retreat rates derived from lichen coverage are between 400 and 1500 mm/ka which is in good concurrence with talus volume assessments, but higher than the rates derived from direct rockfall measurements. The rates derived from lichen coverage have to be taken with caution as the effects of debris redistribution are hard to quantify.     

INCIDENTS OF TERRORISM IN THE UNITED STATES, 1997–2005

ABSTRACT. The geography of terrorism remains underexplored. By focusing on the spatial patterns of terrorist attacks, the settings and land uses in which attacks occur, and the methods used to perpetrate violence, this analysis helps build a theory of terrorism geography. Between 1 January 1997 and 11 September 2005, 178 terrorist incidents occurred in the United States. Analysis of these incidents suggests three insights. At the national scale, terrorism in the United States clustered in large urban areas, with regional differentiation of terrorist motives and targets. At the scale of individual attack sites, terrorist motivations pinpointed offices, clinics, and public spaces; right‐wing violence, military, government, and infrastructural targets; and religious terrorism, commercial and special land uses. At the scale of individual interactions, terrorists crossed paths with victims in various ways. For example, the 2001 anthrax‐attack letters and lone‐wolf terrorism created alternative intersections of perpetrators with victims.     

GERMAN GREAT–POWER RELATIONS IN THE PAGES OF SIMPLICISSIMUS, 1896–1914*

ABSTRACT. Wilhelmine Germany had a powerful economy and, after 1898, began construction of a fleet to challenge Great Britain's global power. This article analyses Germany's cultural “will to power” in the period through the eyes of the avant‐garde, Munich‐published weekly magazine Simplicissimus as it examined the series of security crises between 1896 and the outbreak of war in 1914. The magazine was no fan of Wilhelmine militarism, its principal artist having been jailed for criticism of the kaiser, but it showed a deep support for Germany's rise to power on moral grounds. Many illustrations dealt with global power projection through the navy and the need for a suitable security partner within Europe. Its illustrators depicted Great Britain as an immoral world power only Germany might check and France as its preferred security partner to keep Europe at peace.     

A NEW RECONSTRUCTION OF TEMPERATURE VARIABILITY IN THE EXTRA‐TROPICAL NORTHERN HEMISPHERE DURING THE LAST TWO MILLENNIA

A new temperature reconstruction with decadal resolution, covering the last two millennia, is presented for the extratropical Northern Hemisphere (90–30°N), utilizing many palaeo‐temperature proxy records never previously included in any large‐scale temperature reconstruction. The amplitude of the reconstructed temperature variability on centennial time‐scales exceeds 0.6°C. This reconstruction is the first to show a distinct Roman Warm Period c. ad 1–300, reaching up to the 1961–1990 mean temperature level, followed by the Dark Age Cold Period c. ad 300–800. The Medieval Warm Period is seen c. ad 800–1300 and the Little Ice Age is clearly visible c. ad 1300–1900, followed by a rapid temperature increase in the twentieth century. The highest average temperatures in the reconstruction are encountered in the mid to late tenth century and the lowest in the late seventeenth century. Decadal mean temperatures seem to have reached or exceeded the 1961–1990 mean temperature level during substantial parts of the Roman Warm Period and the Medieval Warm Period. The temperature of the last two decades, however, is possibly higher than during any previous time in the past two millennia, although this is only seen in the instrumental temperature data and not in the multi‐proxy reconstruction itself. Our temperature reconstruction agrees well with the reconstructions by Moberg et al. (2005) and Mann et al. (2008) with regard to the amplitude of the variability as well as the timing of warm and cold periods, except for the period c. ad 300–800, despite significant differences in both data coverage and methodology.     

THE MODERNIZATION OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1880–1940

ABSTRACT. Southeast Asia is an ideal location in which to study the modernization of sugar production, given that the presence of six colonial powers makes comparisons possible. The Dutch took the lead in modernizing the region's sugar industry by breeding new varieties of sugarcane and by introducing central sugar factories. The article takes these two innovations as indexes of modernization and traces their diffusion through the region. It demonstrates that colonial policy largely determined the speed of acceptance of these innovations. Modernization made the sugar industry dependent on the continuing success of scientific research, restructured the relations between worker and factory, and, by supplanting the previous system of sugar production, Chinese in origin, changed the human geography of the region.     

THE IDEOLOGY OF EMPIRE IN NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE'S COVERAGE OF THE PHILIPPINES, 1898–1908

ABSTRACT. Between 1898 and 1908 the National Geographic Magazine reported copiously on the territorial acquisition and U.S. colonial administration of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War. The pages of the magazine provide an intriguing window on connections between the emergence of geography as an organized profession and the expanding sphere of U.S. control of overseas territories. The overall picture reveals a shift from bold calls for direct economic exploitation of the natural resources and labor power of the Philippine Islands to more platitudinous justifications for U.S. control, based on moral responsibility and the ostensibly objective imperatives of “scientific” development.     

广东鹤山赤红壤坡地林茶利用模式的水土保持效应

野外观测试验于1997年在广东省鹤山茶叶科技研究所的赤红壤坡地上进行，试验设计了人工林下地表覆盖（A）、人工林下地表裸露（B）、等高梯田种植茶树（C）和等高梯田裸地对照（CK）4个处理，采用自制的径流收集器分别测定了各处理4场降雨的径流深度、径流系数、水土流失量和侵蚀量等指标，结果表明，CK的平均径流深度高产田3.72mm/10mm，降水流失率为37.2%，平均每10mm降雨的土壤侵蚀量为43.6kg.hm^-2，年土壤侵蚀模数为7.42t.hm^-2；其它3个不同植被覆盖处理的地表径流量比裸地对照降低2.20%-67.08%，平均土壤侵蚀量减少43.81%-90.83%；林下地表覆盖处理的保土效果果好，等高梯田种植茶树处理的保水效果最好。     

THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN MAJOR GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNALS, 1956–1986*

Ninety mainstream quantitative methods used in 14 major geographical journals are analyzed for four selected years: 1956, 1966, 1976, and 1986. Mainstream methods are used in 53% of all articles in 1986, as opposed to 3% in 1956. Both the intensity and variety of methods used also increased, particularly in physical and techniques articles compared to human articles. Major methods that dominate the entire period include bivariate correlation and regression, multiple regression, factor analyses, and chi-square. The use of nonparametric methods is increasing, although their frequency of occurrence is still low. Spatial autocorrelation and advanced multiple regression appear to be strong newcomers to the discipline.     

THE CHANGING LOCATION OF TRADE AND SERVICES IN GUADALAJARA,MEXICO, 1994–2004*

The location of trade and services in Guadalajara, Mexico, is in flux as suburban commercial centers compete with the traditional downtown for new businesses and employment. Since the mid‐1990s a factor driving the change has been the introduction of American‐style big‐box retailers, corporate franchise supermarkets, and large suburban shopping malls. In this article I analyze the changing patterns of commercial and service businesses and employment from 1994 to 2004 in order to compare suburban and urban growth. My analysis includes comparative measures of change in neighborhoods immediately surrounding Walmart stores and by disaggregated types of commercial districts. Results indicate that a complementary relationship has developed: Suburbs are increasingly strong in the services, but the downtown remains a commercial hub. Moreover, some traditional small vendors in close proximity to Walmart may suffer, but growth in employment and in the service sector near Walmarts is high.     

COSTS AND BENEFITS OF POLLUTION CONTROL IN PENNSYLVANIA,NEW YORK,AND NEW JERSEY, 1840–1906

ABSTRACT. Judges in Pennsylvania saw the costs and benefits of protecting people from industrial pollution quite differently from judges in New York and New Jersey between 1840 and 1906. Not only did they invoke balancing doctrine more than did judges in New York and New Jersey; but when costs and benefits were considered, Pennsylvania judges almost always concluded that the price of pollution abatement was too high to justify enjoining polluting industries. New York and New Jersey judges commonly did the reverse, acknowledging great social value and little cost to making businesses alleviate pollution. Judicial interpretation of the notions of cost and benefit mirrored the political, economic, and social conditions in each state, conditions that differed across time and place.     

NOTES ON THE RISE OF THE AREA STUDIES TRADITION IN U.S. GEOGRAPHY, 1910–1929*

Area studies emerged as the leading tradition in American geography during the second decade of this century, supplanting the earth science tradition. The man-land tradition, reaching its peak during the second and third decades, never became as dominant as did the area studies tradition, based on a classification of the number of articles published, papers presented at annual AAG meetings, doctoral dissertations, and philosophical and methodological pronouncements by noted figures in American geography.     

ONE NATION OR TWO? THE CHANGING GEOGRAPHY OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN GREAT BRITAIN, 1983–1988*

Unemployment affected large numbers of people in Great Britain during the 1980s. An economic upturn since the mid-1980s has resulted in declining numbers of unemployed. Disaggregated data show that the geography of unemployment decline has not led to regional convergence in numbers out of work: unemployment has fallen most in those regions which were least affected by it.     

BUILDING A COLONIAL RESOURCE MONOPOLY: THE EXPANSION OF SULPHUR MINING IN NEW SPAIN, 1600–1820*

The discovery, extraction, and monopolistic control of key natural resources was a priority of New Spain's colonial administration. Managing the region's abundant resources, however, often proved difficult for the Spanish Crown. Human and environmental challenges impeded protoindustrial growth and development, and monopolistic control of resources often met resistance. In this article I examine these processes in the context of New Spain's little‐known monopoly on sulphur—a yellow, powdery mineral the Crown jealously guarded as its own. Sulphur was critical for gunpowder and explosives production, yet the Crown often failed to produce enough of it to meet the growing demand by its military and the silver blast‐mining industry. Colonial documents reveal administrators’ attempts to improve sulphur production through reform measures, which included advising sulphur miners on how to discover sulphur deposits and, eventually, how to develop their mines. Efforts to improve sulphur production were moderately successful, although the process was messy and inefficient.     

THE TORONTO STAR FRESH AIR FUND: TRANSCENDENTAL RESCUE IN A MODERN CITY, 1900–1915

ABSTRACT. The Toronto Star newspaper began rescuing poor children from the city's hottest, smokiest, and smelliest neighborhoods in 1901. The Fresh Air Fund, like park and playground planning, assumed that proximity to nature modified both health and behavior. Evoking transcendentalism—the idea that providential nature could move humanity into higher forms of existence—the Star sent children to the countryside near Toronto, albeit temporarily, assured of producing tangible health benefits. It also expected “nature” to convert the antibourgeois immorality of poor children into something more tolerable.     

HOMICIDE AND ASSAULT: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATTRIBUTES IN DALLAS NEIGHBORHOODS, 1981–1985*

A geographic perspective is utilized to test the hypothesis that the legal labels homicide and assault represent essentially similar behaviors. The data base describes some 1200 homicide and 32 000 serious assault victimizations in Dallas, TX, for 1981–85. Detailed comparisons across urban neighborhoods (differentiated by socioeconomic status) examine the demographic, temporal, locational, and weapons characteristics of both types of serious violence. The analysis indicates strong congruence between the offenses with respect to most attributes, implying that violence data should be classified differently for behavioral analyses.