Assessment of soil liquefaction incorporating earthquake characteristics

This paper investigates the effect of nature of the earthquake on the assessment of liquefaction potential of a soil deposit during earthquake loading. Here, the nature of the earthquake is included via the parameter V, the ‘pseudo-velocity’, that is the gross area under the acceleration record of the earthquake at any depth below the ground surface. By analysing a number of earthquake records from different parts of the world, a simple method has been outlined to assess the liquefaction potential of a soil deposit based on the pseudo-velocity. For many earthquakes occurred in the past, acceleration records are available or can be computed at the ground level or some other depth below the ground surface. Therefore, this method is a useful tool at the preliminary design stage to determine the liquefaction potential before going into a detailed analysis. Validation of the method is carried out using a database of case histories consisting of standard penetration test values, acceleration records at the ground surface and field observations of liquefaction/non-liquefaction. It can be seen that the proposed method has the ability to predict soil liquefaction potential accurately, despite its simplicity.     

Three-dimensional liquefaction potential analysis using geostatistical interpolation

We applied three-dimensional geostatistical interpolation to evaluate the extent of liquefiable materials at two sites that liquefied during the 1994 Northridge Earthquake. The sites were the Balboa Blvd site and the Wynne Ave. site located in the alluvial San Fernando Valley. The estimated peak ground accelerations at the sites are 0.84 g (Balboa Blvd) and 0.51 g (Wynne Ave.). These sites were chosen because surface effects due to liquefaction were not predicted using available techniques based on thickness and depth of liquefiable layers (Ishihara [Ishihara K. Stability of natural deposits during earthquakes. Proceedings of the 11th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, vol. 1. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: A.A. Balkema; 1985. p. 321–76.]) and the Liquefaction Potential Index (Iwasaki et al. [Iwasaki T, Tatsuoka F, Tokida K, Yasuda S. A practical method for assessing soil liquefaction potential based on case studies at various sites in Japan. In: Proceedings of the second international conference on microzonation, San Francisco; 1978. p. 885–96.]). During the earthquake, both sites experienced surface effects including ground cracking and extension as a result of liquefaction. Foundations and buried utilities were damaged at both sites. The sites were investigated after the event by researchers with the United States Geologic Survey using standard penetration tests (SPT) and cone penetration tests. In this paper, liquefaction potential was estimated for each soil sample using results from SPTs according to the updated Seed and Idriss simplified procedure. The probability of liquefaction was estimated by applying an indicator transform to the results of the liquefaction potential calculation. We compared our results to detailed geologic mapping of the sites performed by other researchers. Using geostatistical interpolation to estimate the probability of liquefaction is a useful supplement to geologic evaluation of liquefaction potential. The geostatistical analysis provides an estimate of the continuous volume of liquefiable soil along with an assessment of confidence in an interpolation. The probability of liquefaction volumes compare well with those predicted using geologic interpretations.     

某长江大桥深度超过15米的砂土层液化势的综合评价

不同抗震设计规范的砂土液化判别方法或国内外其他有代表性的液化判别方法所采用的地震动参数和土性指标及其埋藏条件是不同的,因而采用这些方法对同一工程场地进行液化势预测时其评价结果通常有一些差异,甚至会得到相反的结论。为了给重大工程建设提供较为合理、可信的地基液化势预测结果,采用多种液化判别方法进行场地液化势的综合评价是比较客观的,也是必要的。本文结合某长江大桥桥基工程,采用建筑抗震设计规范的砂土液化判别方法、国内外有代表性的液化判别方法、有限元数值分析法等多种方法逐一对该工程场地砂性土层进行液化判别,并结合室内动三轴液化试验结果,对主桥墩不考虑冲刷条件和考虑一般冲刷深度5m条件时的砂性土层进行了液化势的综合评价,并将各土层的液化势分为液化、可能液化和不液化3个等级,得到了较为合理可靠的判别结果。     

Non-linear site response simulations in Chang-Hwa region during the 1999 Chi–Chi earthquake, Taiwan

The destructive 1999 Chi–Chi earthquake (M_w 7.5) was the largest inland earthquake in Taiwan in the 20th century. Several observations witness the non-linear seismic soil response in sediments during the earthquake. In fact, large settlements as well as evidence of liquefaction attested by sand boils and unusual wet ground surface were observed at some sites. In this paper, we present a seismic response simulation performed with CyberQuake software on a site located within the Chang-Hwa Coastal Industrial Park during the 1999 Chi–Chi earthquake in Taiwan. A non-linear multi-kinematic dynamic constitutive model is implemented in the software. Computed NS, EW and UP ground accelerations obtained with this model under undrained and two-phase assumptions, are in good agreement with the corresponding accelerations recorded at seismic station TCU117, either for peak location, amplitudes or frequency content. In these simulations, liquefaction occurs between depths 1.3 and 11.3 m, which correspond to the observed range attested by in place penetration tests and other liquefaction analyses. Moreover, the computed shear wave velocity profile is very close to post-earthquake shear wave velocity profile derived from correlations with CPT and SPT data. Finally, it is shown that in non-linear computations, even though a 1D geometry is considered, it is necessary to take into account the three components of the input motion.     

地下管道的震害预测方法简述

强烈的地面运动或场地失效等因素是造成地震中地下管道破坏的主要因素。本文对地震波作用下和砂土液化条件下管道的震害预测方法进行了概述,并基于综合概率法对埋地管道进行了分析预测。     

Consistency of dynamic site response at Port Island

System identification (SI) methods are used to determine empirical Green's functions (EGF) for soil intervals at the Port Island Site in Kobe, Japan and in shake table model tests performed by the Port and Harbor Research Institute (PHRI) to emulate the site during the 17 January 1995 Hyogo‐ken Nanbu earthquake. The model form for the EGFs is a parametric auto‐regressive moving average (ARMA) model mapping the ground motions recorded at the base of a soil interval to the top of that interval, hence capturing the effect of the soil on the through‐passing wave. The consistency of site response at Port Island before, during, and after the mainshock is examined by application of small motion foreshock EGFs to incoming ground motions over these time intervals. The prediction errors (or misfits) for the foreshocks, the mainshock, and the aftershocks, are assessed to determine the extent of altered soil response as a result of liquefaction of the ground during the mainshock. In addition, the consistency of soil response between field and model test is verified by application of EGFs calculated from the shake table test to the 17 January input data. The prediction error is then used to assess the consistency of behaviour between the two cases. By using EGFs developed for small‐amplitude foreshock ground motions, ground motions were predicted for all intervals of the vertical array except those that liquefied with small error. Analysis of the post‐liquefied ground conditions implies that the site response gradually returns to a pre‐earthquake state. Site behaviour is found to be consistent between foreshocks and the mainshock for the native ground (below 16 m in the field) with a normalized mean square error (NMSE) of 0.080 and a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.5g. When the soil actually liquefies (change of state), recursive models are needed to track the variable soil behaviour for the remainder of the shaking. The recursive models are shown to demonstrate consistency between the shake table tests and the field with a NMSE of 0.102 for the 16 m to surface interval that liquefied. The aftershock ground response was not modelled well with the foreshock EGF immediately after the mainshock (NMSE ranging from 0.37 to 0.92). One month after the mainshock, the prediction error from the foreshock modeled was back to the foreshock error level. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley Sons, Ltd.     

Threshold seismic energy and liquefaction distance limit during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

Estimating the possible region of liquefaction occurrence during a strong earthquake is highly valuable for economy loss estimation, reconnaissance efforts and site investigations after the event. This study identified and compiled a large amount of liquefaction case histories from the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China, to investigate the relationship between the attenuation of seismic wave energy and liquefaction distance limit during this earthquake. Firstly, we introduced the concept of energy absorption ratio, which is defined as the absorbed energy of soil divided by the imparted energy of seismic waves at a given site, and the relationship between the energy absorption ratio and the material damping ratio was established based on shear stress–strain loop of soil element and the seismic wave propagation process from the source to the site. Secondly, the threshold imparted seismic energy of liquefaction was obtained based on existing researches of absorbed energy required to trigger liquefaction of sandy soils and the ground motion attenuation characteristics of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, and the liquefaction distance limit of this earthquake was estimated according to the proposed magnitude–energy–distance relationship. Finally, the field liquefaction database of 209 sites of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake was used to validate such an estimation, and the field observed threshold imparted seismic energy to cause liquefaction in recent major earthquakes worldwide was back-analyzed to check the predictability of the present method, and several possible mechanisms were discussed to explain the discrepancy between the field observations and the theoretical predictions. This study indicates that seismic energy attenuation and liquefaction distance limit are regional specific and earthquake dependent, and 382 J/m³ is the average level of threshold imparted seismic energy to cause liquefaction for loose saturated sandy soils, and the corresponding liquefaction distance limit is approximately 87.4 km in fault distance for a M_w?=?7.9 event in the Chengdu Plain. The proposed regional energy attenuation model and threshold imparted seismic energy may be considered as an approximate tool in evaluating the liquefaction hazard during potential earthquakes in this area.     

Ground response analysis of Kanpur soil along Indo-Gangetic Plains

The present work deals with 1D and 2D ground response analysis and liquefaction analysis of alluvial soil deposits from Kanpur region along Indo-Gangetic plains. Standard penetration tests and seismic down hole tests have been conducted at four locations namely IITK, Nankari village, Mandhana and Bithoor at 1.5 m interval up to a depth of 30 m below the ground surface to find the variation of penetration blows and the shear wave velocity along the depth. From the selected sites undisturbed as well as representative soil samples have been collected for detailed soil classification. The soil profiles from four sites have been considered for 1D and 2D ground response analysis by applying the free field motions of three Himalayan earthquakes namely Chamba earthquake (M_w—5.1), Chamoli earthquake (M_w—6.4) and Uttarkashi earthquake (M_w—6.5). An average value of Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) obtained from 1D and 2D analysis is considered for liquefaction analysis and post-liquefaction settlement. The excess pore water pressure ratio is greater than 0.8 at a depth of 24 m from ground surface for IITK, Nankari village, Bithoor sites. More than 50% of post liquefaction settlement is contributed by layers from 21–30 m for all sites. In general, the soil deposits in Kanpur region have silty sand and sand deposits and are prone to liquefaction hazards due to drastic decrease of cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) at four chosen sites in Kanpur.     

Liquefaction-induced damage to houses and its countermeasures at Minami-Kurihashi in Kuki City during the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake,Japan

Sand boiling and liquefaction-induced damage to houses and infrastructures occurred in Minami-Kurihashi, Kuki City, during the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Japan. After the earthquake, extensive site investigations were conducted in the affected areas, including 14 borehole surveys and 43 sounding tests, where Piezo Drive Cone penetrometer, a newly developed test method, was used which could be effectively employed in detecting local change of soil profiles. A filled sandy soil layer existed near the ground surface in the affected areas, which originated from reclamation works using dredged materials to construct housing lots. In addition, a Holocene sandy soil layer existed partly at a depth of about 10–13 m. Though these two layers were evaluated to be potentially liquefiable, the liquefaction-induced damage was observed to concentrate in the areas where the reclamation works had been executed, suggesting that the liquefaction of the reclaimed layer caused such damage. It was deduced that possible liquefaction of the Holocene layer did not contribute to the damage and to the occurrence of sand boiling at the ground surface. As countermeasure against future liquefaction, ground water lowering method has been selected, and in-situ tests and numerical analyses were executed to predict the long-term ground settlement. A subsequent study on detailed design of the selected countermeasure is underway as of June 1, 2015.     

Characterization of liquefaction resistance in gravelly soil: large hammer penetration test and shear wave velocity approach

Gravelly soil is generally recognized to have no liquefaction potential. However, liquefaction cases were reported in central Taiwan in the 1999 Chi-Chi Taiwan earthquake and in the 1988 Armenia earthquake. Thus, further studies on the liquefaction potential of gravelly soil are warranted. Because large particles can impede the penetration of both standard penetration test and cone penetration test, shear wave velocity-based correlations and large hammer penetration tests (LPT) are employed to evaluate the liquefaction resistance of gravelly soils. A liquefied gravelly deposit site during the Chi-Chi earthquake was selected for this research. In situ physical properties of soil deposits were collected from exploratory trenches. Instrumented LPT and shear wave velocity (V_s) measurements were performed to evaluate the liquefaction resistance. In addition, large-scale cyclic triaxial tests on remolded gravelly soil samples (15 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height) were conducted to verify and improve LPT-based and V_s-based correlations. The results show that the LPT and shear wave velocity methods are reasonably suitable for liquefaction assessment of gravelly soils.     

Distribution and characteristics of gravelly soil liquefaction in the Wenchuan <Emphasis Type="Italic">M</Emphasis><Subscript>s</Subscript> 8.0 earthquake

In this paper,a distribution map of gravelly soil liquefaction that was caused by the Wenchuan M_s 8.0 earthquake in China is proposed based on a detailed field investigation and an analysis of geological soil profiles. The geological background of the earthquake disaster region is summarized by compiling geological cross sections and borehole logs. Meanwhile,four typical liquefied sites were selected to conduct sample drillings,dynamic penetration tests (DPT),and shear wave velocity tests,to understand the features of liquefied gravelly soil. One hundred and eighteen (118) liquefied sites were investigated shortly after the earthquake. The field investigation showed:(1) sandboils and waterspouts occurred extensively,involving thousands of miles of farmland,120 villages,eight schools and five factories,which caused damage to some rural houses,schools,manufacturing facilities and wells,etc.; (2) the Chengdu plain is covered by a gravelly soil layer with a thickness of 0 m to 541 m according to the geological cross sections; (3) there were 80 gravelly soil liquefied sites in the Chengdu plain,shaped as five belt areas that varied from 20 km to 40 km in length,and about ten gravelly soil liquefied sites distributed within Mianyang area; and (4) the grain sizes of the sampled soil were relative larger than the ejected soil on the ground,thus the type of liquefied soil cannot be determined by the ejected soil. The gravelly soil liquefied sites are helpful in enriching the global database of gravelly soil liquefaction and developing a corresponding evaluation method in further research efforts.     

Liquefaction macrophenomena in the great Wenchuan earthquake

On May 12, 2008 at 14:28, a catastrophic magnitude M 8.0 earthquake struck the Sichuan Province of China.The epicenter was located at Wenchuan (31.00°N, 103.40°E). Liquefaction macrophenomena and corresponding destruction was observed throughout a vast area of 500 km long and 200 km wide following the earthquake. This paper illustrates the geographic distribution of the liquefaction and the relationship between liquefaction behavior and seismic intensity, and summarizes the liquefaction macrophenomena, including sandboils and waterspouts, ground subsidence, ground fissures etc., and relevant liquefaction features. A brief summary of the structural damage caused by liquefaction is presented and discussed. Based on comparisons with liquefaction phenomena observed in the 1976 Tangshan and 1975 Haicheng earthquakes, preliminary analyses were performed, which revealed some new features of liquefaction behavior and associated issues arising from this event. The site investigation indicated that the spatial non-uniformity of liquefaction distribution was obvious and most of the liquefied sites were located in regions of seismic intensity Ⅷ. However, liquefaction phenomena at ten different sites in regions of seismic intensity Ⅵ were also observed for the first time in China mainland. Sandboils and waterspouts ranged from centimeters to tens of meters, with most between 1 m to 3 m. Dramatically high water/sand ejections,e.g., more than 10 m, were observed at four different sites. The sand ejections included silty sand, fine sand, medium sand,course sand and gravel, but the ejected sand amount was less than that in the 1976 Tangshan earthquake. Possible liquefaction of natural gravel soils was observed for the first time in China mainland.     

含弱渗透性覆盖层饱和砂土地震液化特性研究

针对含弱渗透性覆盖层的饱和砂土地基进行一组离心机振动台试验,并采用OpenSees对试验模型进行数值模拟。通过模型试验与数值模拟结果对比讨论OpenSees对于饱和砂土地基地震液化模拟的精度;采用水平方向的Arias强度表示传入某一位置的地震动强度,并以液化时水平方向Arias强度作为该土层的抗液化强度;采用OpenSees计算不同地震动输入时饱和砂土的反应,以此检验Arias强度作为抗液化强度的准确性。结果表明,引起饱和砂土液化所需要的地震动强度随深度增加而增加;当传入的地震强度达到砂土发生液化所需要的地震强度时,该层砂土将会发生液化。     

区域土壤地震液化预测简化方法

利用可大范围获取的空间参数给出区域土壤液化的评估方法,可预估震前各地区土壤液化可能性,可快速评估震后震区土壤液化情况,对预防减轻地震灾害以及地震快速响应救援都具有重要意义的.本文以我国1976唐山大地震液化调查资料为背景,提出了区域土壤液化预测的四参数简化评估方法,并用2011年新西兰基督城地震进行了检验.选取场地平均剪切波速V s30、复合地形指数CTI、场地到河流的距离DR以及地面峰值加速度PGA,分别代表土壤密实程度、饱水状态、地质年代和遭遇的地震作用大小,并基于我国唐山地震液化区域调查资料生成的样本,运用经典二元Logistic回归方法,建立了区域土壤液化预测模型和评估公式,回归检验结果良好,整体回判成功率为77%,非液化和液化区域成功率分别为73%和78%.将公式应用于评估2011年新西兰基督城地震液化情况,区域液化和非液化成功率分别为82%和88%,总体成功率为84%.以上结果表明本文模型可靠,方法正确,可用于区域土壤液化震前预估以及土壤液化震后快速评估.     

可液化倾斜场地中桩基动力响应振动台试验研究

为研究倾斜场地中桩基的动力响应,以2011年新西兰地震中受损的Dallington桥为原型,设计并完成可液化倾斜场地桥梁桩-土相互作用的振动台模型试验。试验再现了喷砂、冒水、地裂缝、场地流滑等宏观现象。试验结果表明,土层足够的液化势及惯性是造成倾斜场地侧向流滑的必要条件;浅层土相比深层土更易液化,液化层中的加速度由下至上呈现逐渐衰减的趋势,而未液化砂土层却表现为逐渐增大的特征;深部测点的桩侧土压力明显大于浅部测点,且土体的液化会弱化土对结构的压力;结构应变最大值位于上部桥台,而结构弯矩在桩身中部及土层分界面附近出现两个较大值,桩端嵌固及倾斜场地流滑是造成出现两个弯矩较大值的主要原因。     

门源M6.9地震诱发地质灾害特征研究

2022年1月8日发生的门源M6.9地震诱发了崩塌、滑坡、砂土液化、地裂缝等多种同震地质灾害。通过对门源M6.9地震地质灾害进行现场调查,得出了地质灾害的分布特征和各类型地质灾害的主要特点,分析了地震地质灾害不发育的原因,并对地震地质灾害的长期效应进行了分析预测。研究结果表明：门源地震诱发地质灾害主要分布在震中附近;崩塌、落石总体规模较小,滑坡多为岩质滑坡,且以冰碛物和表层岩土体的溜滑为主。受表层土体冻结和孔隙水压力消散的影响,饱和砂土液化沿较窄的地裂缝呈串珠状分布,喷出物多为粉细砂。地震形成了4条左旋左阶斜列的地表破裂带,并在极震区内形成了大量的地裂缝。断层破碎带对地震动的阻隔作用、覆盖层薄、地表土冻结可能是造成本次地震地质灾害总体不发育的主要原因;地震产生的大量地裂缝导致斜坡和堆积体的稳定性减弱,在耦合集中降雨、冻融作用等因素后可能诱发滑坡灾害,松散堆积于沟床处的崩滑物作为物源,可能会增加地震影响区泥石流灾害的风险。     

Assessing CPT-based methods for liquefaction evaluation with emphasis on the cases from the Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake

In the early morning (1:47 Taiwan time) of September 21, 1999, the largest earthquake of the century in Taiwan (M_w=7.6, M_L=7.3) struck this island country. The earthquake killed more than 2400 people and caused great destruction to buildings, bridges, dams, highways, and railways. One of the causes for heavy damages to the structures is soil liquefaction and ground settlement during the earthquake. In this paper, investigation of soil liquefaction and case histories of liquefaction are presented. Three CPT-based simplified methods, the Robertson method, the Olsen method, and the Juang method, are examined using the case histories derived from the Chi-Chi earthquake. The results of the comparison show that the Juang method is more accurate than the two methods in predicting liquefaction potential of soils based on the cases derived from the Chi-Chi earthquake, although all three methods are quite comparable in accuracy.     

基于重塑饱和砂土模型的现场液化试验方法

基于现场开展土体液化问题研究势必成为今后土动力学中的一个重要发展方向。目前人工激振下的现场液化试验方法还不够成熟,尚需进一步探索和发展。本文从试验设备组成、场地地震动激励、试坑布置、饱和砂土模型制备、数据测量与采集等5个方面论述该方法中的主要技术问题。研究表明:动力加载系统激励产生的地震动在0~7m/s2;系统工作频率13~15Hz,饱和砂土模型与基础边缘的距离在0.5~2.5m范围内,更适合进行液化试验;应用水沉法现场制备饱和砂土模型,要重点注意试坑防水和尺寸定位的问题;数据测量与采集中要充分考虑对现场液化问题认识不够这一因素的影响,需对数据测量与采集提出附加要求;试验实例初步表明,该方法可行,适合开展液化问题研究。     

Shear wave velocity-based liquefaction evaluation in the great Wenchuan earthquake： a preliminary case study

The great Wenchuan earthquake (Ms = 8.0) in 2008 caused severe damage in the western part of the Chengdu Plain. Soil liquefaction was one of the major causes of damage in the plain areas, and proper evaluation of liquefaction potential is important in the definition of the seismic hazard facing a given region and post-earthquake reconstruction. In this paper, a simplified procedure is proposed for liquefaction assessment of sandy deposits using shear wave velocity (Vs), and soil liquefaction from the Banqiao School site was preliminarily investigated after the earthquake. Boreholes were made at the site and shear wave velocities were measured both by SASW and down-hole methods. Based on the in-situ soil information and Vs profiles, the liquefaction potential of this site was evaluated. The results are reasonably consistent with the actual field behavior observed after the earthquake, indicating that the proposed procedure is effective. The possible effects of gravel and fines contents on liquefaction of sandy soils were also briefly discussed.     

A novel framework integrating downhole array data and site response analysis to extract dynamic soil behavior

Seismic site response analysis is commonly used to predict ground response due to local soil effects. An increasing number of downhole arrays are deployed to measure motions at the ground surface and within the soil profile and to provide a check on the accuracy of site response analysis models. Site response analysis models, however, cannot be readily calibrated to match field measurements. A novel inverse analysis framework, self-learning simulations (SelfSim), to integrate site response analysis and field measurements is introduced. This framework uses downhole array measurements to extract the underlying soil behavior and develops a neural network-based constitutive model of the soil. The resulting soil model, used in a site response analysis, provides correct ground response. The extracted cyclic soil behavior can be further enhanced using multiple earthquake events. The performance of the algorithm is successfully demonstrated using synthetically generated downhole array recordings.