Analysis of soil erosion characteristics in small watersheds with particle swarm optimization, support vector machine, and artificial neuronal networks

Sand production by soil erosion in small watershed is a complex physical process. There are few physical models suitable to describe the characteristics of the intense erosion in domestic loess plateau. Introducing support vector machine (SVM) oriented to small sample data and possessing good extension property can be an effective approach to predict soil erosion because SVM has been applied in hydrological prediction to some extent. But there are no effective methods to select the rational parameters for SVM, which seriously limited the practical application of SVM. This paper explored the application of intelligence-based particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm in automatic selection of parameters for SVM, and proposed a prediction model by linking PSO and SVM for small sample data analysis. This method utilized the high efficiency optimization property and swarm paralleling property of PSO algorithm and the relatively strong learning and extending capacity of SVM. For an example of Huangfuchuan small watershed, its intensive fragmentation and intense erosion earn itself the name of “worst erosion in the world”. Using four characteristics selection algorithms of correlation feature selection, the primary affecting factors for soil erosion in this small watershed were determined to be the channel density, ravine area, sand rock proportion, and the total vegetation coverage. Based on the proposed PSO–SVM algorithm, the soil erosion modulus in the small watershed was predicted. The accuracy of the simulation and prediction was good, and the average error was 3.85%. The SVM predicting model was based on the monitoring data of sand production. The construction of the SVM erosion modulus prediction model for the small watershed comprehensively reflected the complex mechanism of soil erosion and sand production. It had certain advantage and relatively high practical value in small sample prediction in the discipline of soil erosion.     

Coupled wellbore erosion and stability analysis

This paper extends earlier work on sand erosion and presents an attempt to couple sand erosion to mechanical damage of rock around a wellbore. Porosity which evolves in time and space as surface erosion progresses, is chosen as the coupling parameter. Both rock elasticity and strength (cohesion) are assumed to depend on porosity in such a way that the material becomes weaker with increasing porosity. The mathematical model, consists of erosion equations, mixture flow equations and stress equilibrium equations, is solved numerically by Galerkin finite element method. Numerical results suggest that erosion, resulting in sand production, is high close to the free surface. Erosion is accompained by changes in porosity and a significant permeability increase. Erosion in the vicinity of the wellbore induces alterations in the mechanical behaviour of the medium. Weakening of rock stiffness leads to severe alteration of both effective stresses and pore pressure near the cavity. Since cohesion decreases with increasing porosity, one can also identify the time instant at which rock mechanical failure starts. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Volumetric sand production model and experiment

A sand production model was developed for volumetric sand production predictions that take into account the effects of the external stresses and fluid flow rate. The model couples the poro‐mechanical behaviour of the solid–fluid system with the erosion behaviour of the solids due to fluid flow. It predicts reasonably experimental volumetric sand production data from a hollow cylinder test on a weak sandstone. The test results show that in weak and compactive sandstones, sand production is associated with decohesioning and plasticification of a zone around the inner hole which can then be mobilized by the hydrodynamic forces of the fluid flow. The sand production rate increases both with external applied stress and fluid flow rate but it is constant with time under constant external stress and fluid flow rate. In both cases a critical lower limit has to be exceeded for sand production initiation. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

一种基于热力学原理的密砂模型

从热力学定律出发,利用自由能函数和耗散函数,通过严格的理论推导得到屈服函数、流动法则和硬化规律。在临界状态模型的框架内,将基于热力学基础的各向异性模型和特定的旋转硬化规律结合起来,提出了一种新的处理方法用来模拟密砂在三轴试验中的变形曲线。给定多组模型参数,计算排水和不排水三轴试验,并简单讨论了模型参数对曲线规律的影响,结果表明这种方法是有效的。通过屈服面在变形不同阶段采用不同的旋转方向,能够考虑密砂的复杂试验曲线特征,又由模型的热力学基础保证了屈服面和剪胀函数的协调。这种方法确定的模型结构严密,适应性强,可以描述大范围土体的特性,且简单易于使用。     

砂土应力路径本构模型的试验验证

建立了砂土应力路径本构模型,揭示了应力路径影响砂土应力-应变关系的本质,在平均应力p变化不大的条件下主要是剪应力比的影响。当使用该模型计算应力-应变关系时,将应力路径线性化,分别计算等平均应力p路径和等应力比 路径上的应变。利用试验对模型所引用的关系式 进行验证,试验结果和 的理论值较为吻合,证明了模型引用关系式 的合理性。并利用模型对复杂路径下砂土的应力-应变关系进行预测,对模型预测与试验结果进行比较,结果表明模型可以合理地考虑复杂应力路径对砂土应力-应变关系的影响。     

Recent colluvial sedimentation in Jordan: fans evolving into sand ramps

Abstract High‐angle accumulations of sand and escarpment‐derived gravel along the outcrop walls of Plio‐Pleistocene sandstones, eastern Jordan, form small, coalesced colluvial fans, built by rockfalls, rockfall‐derived debris flows, dry sandfalls and sandy grainflows. These deposits are sourced through wind erosion of fault‐controlled outcrops of weakly cemented sandstone and a hard, gypsum‐cemented sandstone and fine conglomerate caprock exposed in sandpits. Eroded sediment is supplied to the fans directly as rockfalls and sandfalls, and indirectly as gully‐confined sandy grainflows. The preserved colluvium fans comprise sandy, matrix‐rich rockfall, rockfall‐derived, dry debris‐flow lenticular gravel deposits and minor lenticular sandy grainflow deposits. The fans develop initially against the footwall escarpment and, as erosion continues, the outcrop and the fans become covered by stable sand sheet ramps in a self‐regulatory geomorphic system. Preserved fan–sand ramp systems in eastern Jordan are characterized by a threefold hierarchy of genetically related bounding surfaces, which develop over short time scales. Rapid fault‐controlled uplift and/or rapid stream incision may produce non‐equilibrium scarp faces, identical to those in the sandpits, associated with the colluvial fan–sand ramp systems. Thus, such systems have the potential to identify fault‐related unconformities, rapid uplift events and episodes of rapid downcutting in the rock record. Colluvium deposits have good preservation potential, but are often associated with complex, coarse, basin‐margin facies, and are thus difficult to identify in the stratigraphic record; a problem exacerbated by the lack of adequate colluvium facies models and diagnostic sedimentary criteria.     

Micromechanical analysis of sand production

We present a micromechanical approach based on zero-thickness interface elements for modelling advanced localization and cracking states of cemented granular materials, such as reservoir sandstones. The proposed methodology is capable of reproducing the complex behaviour of intergranular and intragranular localization, cracking, and fracturing of rock formation that leads to sanding in hydrocarbon production. The model is calibrated at the macroscale, using only a few physical parameters, by reproducing the typical behaviour of compression element tests. The model exhibits clear transition behaviour from brittle dilatant to ductile compactant behaviour with increasing confining stress. The methodology is implemented for sand production prediction analysis based on the simulation of 2D micromechanical models of hollow cylinder cross sections. The obtained results are compared well with published experimental data from hollow cylinder tests characterized by strong scale effect in the range of small perforations.     

钱塘江河口过江隧道河段极端洪水冲刷深度的预测

钱塘江河口为强冲积性河口,在洪潮水流共同作用下河床冲淤剧烈,极端洪水条件下河床的冲刷深度是过江隧道工程的关键问题之一。基于河床演变分析、动床数值模拟和动床物理模型等研究手段,建立了钱塘江河口过江隧道河段洪水冲刷深度的预测模型,分别经钱塘江河口的典型实测地形、水流泥沙及河床冲淤等实测资料进行验证。在此基础上预测了某过江隧道河段在极端洪水作用下河床最大冲刷深度,三种研究方法所得的结果定性定量基本合理,且与后来地质详勘的沉积分析成果基本一致,进一步表明了预测模型的可靠性,预测的最大冲刷深度可为过江隧道的合理埋设提供科学依据。     

Facies architecture and depositional processes of the Holocene–Recent accretionary forced regressive Skagen spit system, Denmark

Spit systems are seldom recognized in the pre‐Quaternary sedimentary record compared to their common occurrence along present‐day coasts and in Quaternary successions. This lack of recognition may partly be due to the lack of widely accepted depositional models describing the facies characteristics of spit systems and their subaqueous platforms in particular. The Skagen spit system is a large active system that began to form 7150 yr bp and from 5500 bp to Recent times it has prograded 4 m year^?1 and accumulated 3·5 × 10⁹ m³ of sand. The spit system provides a unique opportunity for establishing a well‐constrained depositional model because uplift and erosion have made large windows into the preserved facies, while active spit‐forming processes can be examined at the young prograding end of the same system. The depositional model presented here thus builds on excellent outcrops, surface morphology, a well‐defined palaeogeography and detailed C¹⁴ age control supplemented with observations from continuous well cores and profiles obtained by ground‐penetrating radar and transient electromagnetic surveys. The factors that have governed the development of the spit system, such as relative sea‐level change, wave and current climate, tidal range, sediment transport and depositional rates are also well‐understood. The sedimentary facies of the spit system are grouped into four principal units consisting from below of thick storm sand beds, dune and bar‐trough deposits, beach deposits and peat beds. These four units form a coarsening and shallowing upward sand‐dominated succession, up to 32 m thick, which overlies offshore silt with a transition zone and is topped by a diastem overlain by young aeolian dune sand. The sedimentary structures and depositional processes are described in detail and integrated into a depositional model, which is compared to other spit systems and linear shoreface models.     

The equilibrium gravel coverage of the deflated gobi above the Mogao Grottoes of Dunhuang, China

Blown sand has caused considerable damage to the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes of China. Controlling the blown sand requires a clear understanding of the processes that govern its production and movement. Experiments were conducted in a wind tunnel and in the field to define the relationships between sand production and gravel coverage in the gobi above the Mogao Grottoes. The gravel that covers the gobi’s surface controls wind erosion, irrespective of its shape and size. The equilibrium coverage by gravel over which no further sand is emitted due to wind erosion increases and the equilibration time that is taken to form the equilibrium gravel coverage decreases with increasing wind velocity. Gravel coverage has reached an equilibrium state in the portion of the gobi directly above the grottoes, but decreases towards the Mingsha Mountains. Drifting sand from these mountains is the main source of sand damage at the Mogao Grottoes. If no additional sand from the mountains were supplied to the gobi, gravel pavements would reach an equilibrium level of coverage and prevent further production of blowing sand. Sand blown from the gobi represents secondary reactivation of sediments originally produced in the Mingsha Mountains. Therefore, to control the blowing sand above the Mogao Grottoes, emphasis should be placed on controlling erosion from the Mingsha Mountains rather than local erosion of sand in the gobi.     

基于体素模型的砂岩侵入体三维重建

砂岩侵入体是由沉积后的砂岩再活动并侵入到周围地层中形成的一种特殊砂体。为了研究其演化过程,设计了砂岩侵入体形成过程的模拟实验。针对实验结果,提出了基于体素模型法和Petrel软件的三维重建方法:在实验切片的基础上,对所得到的实验照片进行预处理,将其转化为Petrel软件能够识别的Gslib格式的数据体,再使用克里金插值算法进行模拟。结果表明,克里金算法可以很好地再现砂岩侵入体的外部形态,多组切片的特征参数统计可以定量地刻画出侵入体的形态,以期为实际岩性油气藏中的规模预测提供理论指导。     

A field quantification of coastal dune perennial plants as indicators of surface stability, erosion or deposition

Dune plants both modify the wind field around them and are impacted by various stress factors, among them sand erosion and sand deposition. As coastal dunes are being either stabilized or remobilized, in response to the changes in the rates of sand and dune movement, the vegetation cover and composition are expected to vary reflecting the differences in the sedimentary conditions. In this field study 315 quadrats of 100 m², in which the perennial plant species were sampled, were analysed with respect to annual rates of sand erosion and deposition that were measured using erosion pins. A visual exploratory data analysis was introduced, based on selective filtering of samples according to their vegetation cover. This method, combined with established statistical tools, enabled the authors to uncover the inclination and indicative power of nine perennial dune plants to either a stabilized or a mobile environment, and to establish whether they are more prevalent in places undergoing sand erosion or sand burial. Two species were found to be clear indicators of a stabilized environment, Stipagrostis lanata , and Retama raetam . Of the species indicating a mobile environment, only one may be stated as a clear indicator of sand erosion: Silene succulenta , with Cyperus macrorrhizus coming close to being an indicator of a less mobile erosive environment. The best indicator species for sand burial was found to be, as expected, Ammophila arenaria , with Artemisia monosperma also indicating high rates of sand mobility especially when its relative cover is higher than 80%. Such information can be used to monitor natural processes of dune stabilization or reactivation, or to assess the success of a management plan that aims at stabilizing a dune, or at remobilizing it by removing vegetation.     

准噶尔盆地车排子凸起西翼侏罗系骨架砂体连通性研究

骨架砂体作为油气输导体系的重要组成要素,控制着油气在空间上侧向的运移以及分布,其有效连通常受到砂体内部断层发育以及砂体微观非均质性的影响.通过对准噶尔盆地车排子凸起西翼地区主要井位进行单井分析,在明确区域地层格架与沉积相的基础上,划分侏罗系头屯河组及八道湾组各段的骨架砂体;并在此基础上绘制骨架砂体连井剖面图以及平面分布等值线图,对研究区骨架砂体的宏观连通性进行研究;再进一步通过对各层位的砂体系统取样,进行孔渗性分析,定性描述其微观连通情况;运用地质统计学方法,对骨架砂体微观连通性进行定量评价.结果表明,从剖面、平面、微观3个方面针对侏罗系头屯河组和八道湾组骨架砂体进行综合评价,研究区骨架砂体连通性相对较好的组段为侏罗系头屯河组三段及八道湾组三段.     

Numerical modelling of internal erosion during hydrate dissociation based on multiphase mixture theory

It has been reported that sand production, which is a simultaneous production of soil particles along with gas and water into a production well, forced to terminate the operation during the world's first offshore methane production test from hydrate-bearing sediments in the Eastern Nankai Tough. The sand production is induced by internal erosion, which is the detachment and migration of soil particles from soil skeleton due to seepage flow. The inflow of the eroded soil particles into the production well leads to damage of the production devices. In the present study, a numerical model to predict the chemo-thermo-mechanically coupled behavior including internal erosion during hydrate dissociation has been formulated based on the multiphase mixture theory. In the proposed model, the internal erosion is expressed as mass transition of soil particles from soil skeleton to the fluidized soil particles. Since the internal erosion is considered to depend on the soil particle size, mass of soil particles are divided into several groups that have different representative particle diameters, and the constitutive equations for the onset condition and the mass transition rate of the internal erosion are formulated for each group. Also, transportation of soil particles in the liquid phase is formulated for each particle size group in the proposed model. Finally, a simulation of the methane gas production from the hydrate-bearing sediment by depressurization method is presented, and the internal erosion and the dissociation behavior are discussed.     

河床采沙挖槽的溯源冲刷影响规律

针对长距离河段大量人工采沙、挖槽发生的河床溯源冲刷影响因素、发展规律及预测方法进行研究。考虑该问题的清水冲刷特征,建立了一维水动力学方程、河床变形和推移质输沙方程组,用TVD（Total Vartation Diminishing）性质的MUSCL-Hancock时空二阶格式和对水流、河床变形方程分别用有限体积和有限差分法进行数值求解,用水槽试验作了验证并研究了溯源冲刷规律。溯源冲刷长度在初期30%的时间内可达平衡时的80%,冲刷速率随来流强度、跌坎高度和跌水水头差明显增大。平衡溯源长度随流量的线性增长率约为0.8,随跌水高差的增长较缓,冲刷最大厚度约为跌坎高度的0.5倍。采沙挖槽河床一旦形成溯源冲刷,则发展迅速,流量和跌水高差是重要影响因素。在合理考虑输沙方程的基础上,该数值模型可用于溯源冲刷的预测,计算速度快且精度较高。     

A coupled discrete element model for the simulation of soil and water flow through an orifice

Soil erosion around defective underground pipes can cause ground collapses and sinkholes in urban areas. Most of these soil erosion events are caused by fluidization of the surrounding soil with subsequent washing into defective sewer pipes. In this study, this soil erosion process is simplified as the gradual washout of sand particles mixed with water through an orifice. The discrete element method is used to simulate the large deformation behavior of the sand particles, and the Darcy fluid model is coupled with this approach to simulate fluid flow through porous sand media. A coupled 3D discrete element model is developed and implemented based on this scheme. To simulate previous experiments using this coupled model considering the current computing capacity, we incorporated a ‘supply layer’ to study the continuous erosion process. The coupled model can predict the erosion flow rates of sand and water and the shape of erosion void. Thus, the model can be used as an effective and efficient tool to investigate the soil erosion process around defective pipes. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Breaching in fine sands and the generation of sustained turbidity currents in submarine canyons

Abstract Natural, moderately loosely packed sands can only erode from the surface of the bed after an increase in pore volume. Because of this shear dilatancy, negative pore pressures are generated in the bed. In cases of low permeability, these negative pressures are released relatively slowly, which retards the maximum rate of erosion. This effect is incorporated in a new, analytically derived, pick‐up function that can explain the observation of gradual retrogressive failure of very steep subaqueous slopes, sometimes more than 5 m high, in fine non‐cohesive sands. This process, termed ‘breaching’ in the field of sediment dredging, may produce large failures in sand bars or river banks. The analytical function that describes the breaching process in fine sand is incorporated in a one‐dimensional, steady‐state numerical model of turbidity currents describing the spatial development of flow. This model is applied to simulate a large ‘flushing’ event in Scripps Submarine Canyon, Pacific coast of California. Breach retrogradation and the successive evolution in time of the resulting turbidity current in the canyon are predicted in a sequence of discrete steps. Predicted velocities are compared with values measured during a flushing event. Implications for the interpretation of deep‐water massive sands are discussed.     

珊瑚砂热物理参数测试与预测模型对比分析

在我国“海洋强国”建设下,南海岛礁建设顺利推进,以浅层礁坪为介质的地源热泵技术、能量桩等,实质是与礁砂介质能量交换的过程,需进一步掌握珊瑚砂导热性能的演变规律。以南海岛礁珊瑚细砂为研究对象,测定并探讨在不同干密度和含水率下对3大热物理参数的影响,并选用12种砂土热物理参数模型的预测数据与实测数据进行类比分析,提出适宜预测珊瑚细砂导热性能的经验模型。结果表明,珊瑚细砂导热系数和体积比热容、热扩散系数均与干密度呈正相关关系,导热系数和体积比热容与含水率的相关系数高于干密度,而热扩散系数与含水率呈“凸”形增长关系,与干密度的相关系数远高于含水率。基于试验实测数据进行线性回归分析,修订Cote-Konrad模型与Gangadhara Rao模型,显著提高模型对珊瑚细砂导热系数预测准确性;通过De Vries模型与Xu模型的线性修正,大幅缩小珊瑚细砂体积比热容预测值与实测值的差异,在Dai模型相关系数的二元拟合分析基础上,建立表征珊瑚细砂热扩散系数预测模型,为岛礁隔热、控温工程设计以及珊瑚砂热物理特性研究提供参考。