Implications for focused fluid transport at the northern Cascadia accretionary prism from a correlation between BSR occurrence a d near-sea-floor reflectivity anomalies imaged in a multi-frequency seismic data set

 A high-resolution seismic survey was carried out at the accretionary prism on the continental slope off Vancouver Island, Canada. Two GI-Gun data sets with different source frequency ranges of 50–150 and 100–500 Hz were combined with 4 kHz narrow-beam echosounding data (Parasound). The data allow spatial correlation between a gas hydrate bottom simulating reflector (BSR) and distinct areas of high near-sea-floor reflectivity. An integrated interpretation of the multi-frequency data set provides insight into the regional distribution of tectonically induced fluid migration and gas hydrate formation in the vicinity of ODP Leg 146 Sites 889 and 890. The BSR at the base of the gas hydrate stability field is observed within accreted and deformed sediments, but appears to be absent within bedded slope basin deposits. It is suggested that these basin deposits inhibit vertical fluid flow and prevent the formation of a BSR, whereas the hydraulic conductivity of the accreted sediments is sufficiently high to allow for pervasive gas migration. An elevation of the BSR beneath the flanks of a topographic high is interpreted as an indicator for local upflow of warm fluids along permeable pathways within outcropping accreted sediments. Parasound data reveal discontinuous zones of high reflectivity at or directly beneath the sea floor, which may indicate local cementation of surface sediments. In combination with GI-Gun data, the occurrence of these reflective areas can be related to the location of slope sedimentary basins acting as hydraulic seals. It is proposed that the seals sometimes fail along faults extending beneath the BSR, leading to focused upflow of methane-bearing fluid and the formation of carbonate pavements at the sea floor. Received: 9 November 1998 / Accepted: 6 April 1999     

Active hydrate destabilization in Lake Baikal,Siberia?

ABSTRACT In this paper, we present new seismic and heat-flow data that show the base of the hydrate stability zone (BHSZ) in Lake Baikal to be locally characterized by abnormal variations in depth, with distinct regions of deeper-than-normal and regions of shallower-than-normal BHSZ. These variations are related to strong lateral variations in heat flow, and occur in close association with important rift-basin faults. Areas of shallow BHSZ are also characterized by the presence of several methane seeps and mud volcanoes at the lake floor. We infer that the seeps are the surface expression of escape pathways for overpressured fluids generated by the dissociation of pre-existing hydrates, in response to a thermal pulse caused by an upward flow of hydrothermal fluids towards the BHSZ. It thus seems that present-day hydrate dissociation in Lake Baikal is modulated by the tectonic activity in the rift rather than by – climatically controlled – changes in lake level or water temperature.     

基于连续小波变换的天然气水合物层地震数据多尺度分析——布莱克海台USGS95-1测线应用实例

似海底反射（BSR）是目前天然气水合物层识别的主要依据,但是当BSR不明显或者缺失的时候怎样识别水合物层,以及水合物层顶面和下伏游离气层底面如何确定,仍然是水合物识别中难以圆满解决的两大难题。以布莱克海台USGS95-1测线地震数据为例利用小波变换进行多尺度研究发现水合物层和游离气层表现出不同的尺度特征：水合物层表现出大尺度特征,而游离气层具有小尺度特征;在最佳尺度剖面上,水合物层表现为低尺度背景中的近似平行于海底的高尺度带。利用水合物层和游离气层的这种尺度差异不但可以识别水合物层,而且还可以推断水合物层的顶面和游离气层的底面。     

Stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Selenga Delta Accommodation Zone, Lake Baikal Rift, Siberia

Seismic reflection profiles from the Lake Baikal Rift reveal extensive details about the sediment thickness, structural geometry and history of extensional deformation and syn-rift sedimentation in this classic continental rift. The Selenga River is the largest single source of terrigenous input into Lake Baikal, and its large delta sits astride the major accommodation zone between the Central and South basins of the lake. Incorporating one of the world's largest lacustrine deltas, this depositional system is a classic example of the influence of rift basin structural segmentation on a major continental drainage. More than 3700 km of deep basin-scale multi-channel seismic reflection (MCS) data were acquired during the 1989 Russian and the 1992 Russian–American field programs. The seismic data image most of the sedimentary section, including pre-rift basement in several localities. The MCS data reveal that the broad bathymetric saddle between these two major half-graben basins is underlain by a complex of severely deformed basement blocks, and is not simply a consequence of long-term deltaic deposition. Maximum sediment thickness is estimated to be more than 9 km in some areas around the Selenga Delta. Detailed stratigraphic analyses of the Selenga area MCS data suggest that modes of deposition have shifted markedly during the history of the delta. The present mode of gravity- and mass-flow sedimentation that dominates the northern and southern parts of the modern delta, as well as the pronounced bathymetric relief in the area, are relatively recent developments in the history of the Lake Baikal Rift. Several episodes of major delta progradation, each extending far across the modern rift, can be documented in the MCS data. The stratigraphic framework defined by these prograding deltaic sequences can be used to constrain the structural as well as depositional evolution of this part of the Baikal Rift. An age model has been established for this stratigraphy, by tying the delta sequences to the site of the Baikal Drilling Project 1993 Drill Hole. Although the drill hole is only 100 m deep, and the base of the cores is only ∼670 ka in age, ages were extrapolated to deeper stratigraphic intervals using the Reflection-Seismic-Radiocarbon method of Cohen et al. (1993). The deep prograding delta sequences now observed in the MCS data probably formed in response to major fluctuations in sediment supply, rather than in response to shifts in lake level. This stratigraphic framework and age model suggest that the deep delta packages developed at intervals of approximately 400 ka and may have formed as a consequence of climate changes affiliated with the northern hemisphere glaciations. The stratigraphic analysis also suggests that the Selenga Basin and Syncline developed as a distinct depocentre only during the past ∼2–3 Ma. Received: 1 December 1999 / Accepted: 26 January 2000     

Sedimentation processes and new age constraints on rifting stages in Lake Baikal: results of deep-water drilling

 With this paper we present a first attempt to combine the direct results on lithology, composition and age dating in the boreholes BDP-93, BDP-96 and BDP-97 with geological and seismic data from the areas where those sections were drilled. The sedimentary environments represented by the BDP boreholes are markedly different and possess characteristic lithological features. The results of the deep drilling provide the essential means for testing numerous age models used in geological reconstructions of the Lake Baikal rifting dynamics. Neither the basin-wide unconformity interpreted from seismic data, nor the interpreted change from shallow-water to deep-water facies at the boundary of the seismic stratigraphic complexes were found in the BDP-96 boreholes on Academician Ridge. Also, lithology does not support the proposed reconstructions of intense lake level fluctuations and transgressions during the Pliocene at Academician Ridge. The continuous deep-water hemipelagic sedimentation at Academician Ridge has existed for the past 5 Ma. The beginning of an intense rifting phase of the Neobaikalian sub-stage and related drastic changes in sedimentation processes were interpreted on seismic sections as the basin-wide unconformity B10. Different age estimates for this boundary ranged from Late Pliocene (3.5 Ma) to Plio-Pleistocene boundary. As shown by BDP-96 borehole, B10 is associated with a lithological change from diatomaceous ooze to dense silty clay and not with an erosional contact. The new age for this boundary in BDP-96 is approximately 2.5 Ma. This new age constraint suggests that the upper sedimentary strata of Northern Baikal (1.5–1.7 km thick) have formed during the past 2.5 Ma with average sedimentation rates of 60–70 cm/ka. The BDP-93 boreholes at Buguldeika suggest that uplift in Primorsky Range took place prior to 1.07–1.31 Ma, a date which exceeds the age of previous geological models. Received: 12 March 1999 / Accepted: 10 February 2000     

Evolution of the Academician Ridge Accommodation Zone in the central part of the Baikal Rift, from high-resolution reflection seismic profiling and geological field investigations

 New high-resolution seismic reflection data from the central part of Lake Baikal provide new insight into the structure and stratigraphy of Academician Ridge, a large intra-rift accommodation zone separating the Central and North Baikal basins. Four seismic packages are distinguished above the basement: a thin top-of-basement unit; seismic-stratigraphic unit X; seismic-stratigraphic unit A; and seismic-stratigraphic unit B. Units A and B were cored on selected key locations. The four packages are correlated with a series of deposits exposed on the nearby western shores: the Ularyar Sequence (Oligocene); the Tagay Sequence (Lower to Middle Miocene); the Sasa Sequence (Upper Miocene to Lower Pliocene); the Kharantsy Sequence (Upper Pliocene); and the Nyurga Sequence (Lower Pleistocene). Based on stratal relationships, sedimentary geometries, distribution patterns and principal morphostructural elements – both onshore and offshore – we propose a new palaeogeographic evolution model for the area. In this model progressive tectonic subsidence of the Baikal basins and successive pulses of uplift of various segments of the rift margins lead to: (a) formation of the ridge as a structural and morphological feature separating the Central and North Baikal basins during the Middle to Late Miocene; (b) gradual flooding of the main parts of the ridge and establishment of a lacustrine connection between the two rift basins during the Late Miocene; and (c) total submergence of the top parts of the crest of the ridge during the latest Pleistocene. This new model helps to better constrain numerous phases in the structural evolution of the Baikal Rift, in which the Academician Ridge as an accommodation zone plays a crucial role. Received: 26 November 1999 / Accepted: 12 March 2000     

Renewal of deep waters of Lake Baikal revisited

The patterns of renewal of bottom waters in Lake Baikal under the influence of deep convection and intrusion of cold waters have been considered based on the data of temperature surveys of Lake Baikal conducted in 1993–2009. The volumes of the cold bottom layer with the maximums of 200–470 km³ in individual years and the values of its total cooling (−20–60 × 10⁹ MJ) have been determined for South, Middle, and North Baikal. The renewal process is asynchronous and proceeds with different activity in these parts of the lake, which indicates that the mechanisms that cause deep convection in the context of the great latitudinal length and differences in the climate and hydrological processes manifest themselves regionally. The volume of intrusions has been determined. Its average value for the period was higher in South Baikal (20 km³) than in Middle Baikal (9.8 km³) and North Baikal (8.6 km³). The volume of the intrusions in these parts of the lake was 30–70 km³ in some years.     

基于天然气水合物地震数据计算南海北部陆坡海底热流

天然气水合物是一种由水的冰晶格架及其间吸附的气体分子（以甲烷为主）组成的固态化合物,地震剖面上的似海底反射BSR是天然气水合物赋存的重要地球物理标志。相同气体成分水合物的相对稳定的温压关系是根据BSR的赋存深度计算海底热流的理论基础。选择南海北部陆坡有典型BSR反射的地震剖面,计算了南海北部陆坡天然气水合物发育区的压力、温度、地温梯度、热导率及热流等地热参数。通过计算热流值与实测热流值的对比可以大致推测,在南海北部陆坡海底运用该方法计算的热流值误差可能在12％以内。本研究不仅可以为海底热流等理论研究提供一定信度的数据资料,而且通过实测热流值校正后的热流数据以及经验公式,可以反过来用于BSR深度的计算以及天然气水合物稳定域的预测,具有重要的实践意义。     

Seismotectonics of the transitional region from the Baikal Rift Zone to orogenic rise of the Stanovoi range

This paper is based on the data obtained during the field study of active faults carried out in 2005–2006 in the Chita and Amur oblast and South Yakutia in connection with detailed seismic demarcation of the projected East Siberia-Pacific Ocean pipeline route. The comprehensive geomorphic and geophysical fieldwork was focused on paleoseismogeology and accompanied by trenching in the zones of reactivated faults. These works allowed us to specify the available information on the present-day structure, seismotectonic regime, and potential seismic hazard of the conjugation of the Baikal Rift Zone and the arched-block rise of the Stanovoi Ridge.     

Seismic analysis and distribution of a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) in the Chilean margin offshore of Valdivia (40° S)

Multi-channel seismic (MCS) reflection data recorded offshore from Valdivia (40° S), in the Chilean margin, were processed to obtain a seismic image to establish structural characteristics and relate them to the presence of the bottom-simulating reflector (BSR). Seismic structure velocity of the BSR was determined using 1-D forward modeling. Recorded seismograms for two representative common mid-point (CMP) gathers were compared with synthetics, using different physical parameters to fit the waveforms. Our results confirm the presence of gas hydrates above the BSR. The BSR spatial continuity appears to be either interrupted or irregular due to the presence of faults. Tectonic movements can change the gas hydrate stability zone and consequently the BSR disappears or becomes weaker. Structural and topographic factors, differences in concentration, vertical distribution characteristics and internal structure of gas hydrates can influence BSR amplitude behavior. Variability in the concentration, volume, and extra supply of free gas coming from faults could be the main factors in the change of BSR amplitudes. The inclusion of the attenuation factor in the modeling supports the existence of free gas below the BSR. It is possible that the free gas below the BSR is distributed in bubbles or “bags”.     

Bottom-simulating reflections and geothermal gradients across the western Svalbard margin

Seismic reflection data reveal prominent bottom-simulating reflections (BSRs) within the relatively young (<0.78 Ma) sediments along the West Svalbard continental margin. The potential hydrate occurrence zone covers an area of c. 1600 km². The hydrate accumulation zone is bound by structural/tectonic features (Knipovich Ridge, Molloy Transform Fault, Vestnesa Ridge) and the presence of glacigenic debris lobes inhibiting hydrate formation upslope. The thickness of the gas-zone underneath the BSR varies laterally, and reaches a maximum of c. 150 ms. Using the BSR as an in-situ temperature proxy, geothermal gradients increase gradually from 70 to 115 °C km⁻¹ towards the Molloy Transform Fault. Anomalies only occur in the immediate vicinity of normal faults, where the BSR shoals, indicating near-vertical heat/fluid flow within the fault zones. Amplitude analyses suggest that sub-horizontal fluid migration also takes place along the stratigraphy. As the faults are related to the northwards propagation of the Knipovich Ridge, long-term disturbance of hydrate stability appears related to incipient rifting processes.     

Seismic velocities from the Yaquina forearc basin off Peru: evidence for free gas within the gas hydrate stability zone

Multichannel seismic (MCS) data from the Yaquina forearc basin off Peru reveal a complex distribution of gas and gas hydrate related reflections. Lateral variations of the reflection pattern at the assumed base of the gas hydrate stability zone in terms of continuity, amplitude, and signal attenuation underneath are observed, as well as the possible occurrence of paleo-bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs). Phase reversed reflections above the bottom simulating reflector point to free gas within the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ). To constrain the interpretation of the observed reflection pattern we calculated the velocity distribution along the MCS line from high-resolution ocean bottom hydrophone recordings with two independent methods. Heat flux values estimated on the basis of the velocity-depth functions increase with decreasing amplitude of the BSR and peak near chemoherms. These results suggest a model of the Yaquina Basin where free gas is trapped under parts of the BSR, and within the GHSZ, particularly under the seafloor and under an erosional unconformity. The hypothesis of a paleo-BSR that reflects the uplift of the base of the hydrate stability zone caused by the deposition of a particular sediment sequence is supported by the estimated heat flux values.     

天然气水合物地震响应研究——中国南海HD152测线应用实例

目前识别水合物的主要依据是BSR和其上具有高速特征的空白带。当BSR不存在, 或由于水合物饱和度较高导致空白带特征不明显时, 水合物的识别是未解决的问题。针对这种情况, 提出了一种更实用的水合物识别模式: 低速背景中近似平行于海底的高速地质体是水合物带的特征, 水合物带泊松比降低, 利用纵横波速度信息易于识别水合物带下是否存在游离气。基于上述水合物的识别模式, 以中国南海HD152测线为实例进行了天然气水合物的识别研究。     

南海北部神狐海域新近系以来沉积相及水合物成藏模式

广州海洋地质调查局自2000年以来在南海北部陆坡区相继开展了多个航次的天然气水合物资源的调查及研究工作, 取得了非常丰富的地震资料.在对这些地震资料精细解释的基础上, 识别出了6种典型的地震相: 透镜状前积相、丘状前积相、V字型充填相、席状平行相、底辟—气烟囱状杂乱相、丘状杂乱相; 并由此分析出3种类型的沉积相: 深水浊积相、滑塌相、峡谷水道相.结合似海底反射(BSR) 在研究区范围内的分布, 研究BSR与各沉积相之间的空间位置关系, 由此分析出了3种水合物成藏模式: 断层沟通浊积扇体成藏模式、断层沟通峡谷水道成藏模式、断层沟通峡谷水道及滑塌扇体成藏模式.      

Geothermal modeling for the base of gas hydrate stability zone and saturation of gas hydrate in the Krishna-Godavari basin,eastern Indian margin

The passive eastern Indian margin is rich in gas hydrates, as inferred from the wide-spread occurrences of bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs) and recovery of gas hydrate samples from various sites in the Krishna Godavari (KG) and Mahanadi (MN) basins drilled by the Expedition 01 of the Indian National Gas Hydrate Program (NGHP). The BSRs are often interpreted to mark the thermally controlled base of gas hydrate stability zone (BGHSZ). Most of the BSRs exhibit moderate to typically higher amplitudes than those from other seismic reflectors. We estimate the average geothermal gradient of ∼40°C/km and heat flow varying from 23 to 62 mW/m² in the study area utilizing the BSR’s observed on seismic sections. Further we provide the BGHSZ where the BSR is not continuous or disturbed by local tectonics or hidden by sedimentation patterns parallel to the seafloor with a view to understand the nature of BSR.     

Bottom Simulating Reflector and Gas Seepage in Okinawa Trough： Evidence of Gas Hydrate in an Active Back-Arc Basin

To look for gas hydrate, 22 multi-channel and 3 single-channel seismic lines on the East China Sea (ECS) shelf slope and at the bottom of the Okinawa Trough were examined. It was found that there was indeed bottom simulating reflector (BSR) occurrence, but it is very rare. Besides several BSRs, a gas seepage was also found. As shown by the data, both the BSR and gas seepage are all related with local geological structures, such as mud diapir, anticline, and fault-controlled graben-like structure. However, similar structural "anomalies" are quite common in the tectonically very active Okinawa Trough region, but very few of them have developed BSR or gas seepage. The article points out that the main reason is probably the low concentration of organic carbon of the sediment in this area. It was speculated that the rare occurrence of gas hydrates in this region is governed by structure-controlled fluid flow. Numerous faults and fractures form a network of high-permeability channels in the sediment and highly fractured igneous basement to allow fluid circulation and ventilation. Fluid flow in this tectonic environment is driven primarily by thermal buoyancy and takes place on a wide range of spatial scales. The fluid flow may play two roles to facilitate hydrate formation:to help gather enough methane into a small area and to modulate the thermal regime.     

Seismic attenuation for characterization of gas hydrate reservoir in Krishna-Godavari basin,eastern Indian margin

Gas hydrates have received global attention as a possible alternative non-conventional energy resource. Hence, the detection, characterization and quantification of gas hydrates are very important for evaluating the resource potential. Presence of gas hydrates in sediments above the bottom simulating reflector or BSR is associated with low attenuation or high quality factor (Q), whereas, free gas bearing sediments below the BSR exhibit high attenuation or low seismic Q. Here the logarithm spectral ratio (LSR) method is applied to marine seismic reflection data along two cross lines (18 and 46) in the Krishna-Godavari (KG) basin in eastern Indian margin, where gas hydrates have already been established by drilling/coring. The interval Qs is calculated for three sedimentary layers (A, B, and C) bounded by the seafloor, BSR, one reflector above and another reflector below the BSR at some common depth points (CDPs) to study the attenuation characteristics of sediments across the BSR. The estimated average interval Q (160) for the hydrate bearing sediments (layer B) is much higher than the average interval Q (80) for both the loose clayey sediments (Layer A) and underlying free gas saturated sediments (layer C). This demonstrates that estimation of seismic quality factor Q can be used for characterization of gas hydrate reservoir.     

Heavy metals in sediments of a large, turbid tropical lake affected by anthropogenic discharges

 Bottom-water data and trace metal concentration of Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Co, Zn, and organic matter in surficial sediment samples from 13 sampling stations of Lake Chapala in Mexico were studied. The lake is turbid with a great amount of flocculated sediments as a result of wind mixing, sediment re-suspension, and Lerma River discharges. Al distribution pattern in sediments was used as an indicator of the Lerma River discharges into Lake Chapala. The highest values of Cu (33.27 ppm), Cr (81.94 ppm), Pb (99.8 ppm), and Zn (149.7 ppm) were detected in sediments near the lake outlet. The bioavailable metal fraction is low for all metals except Pb, which shows 65–93% of the total metal concentration in bioavailable form. The minimum energy zone in the lake was related to organic matter concentration and was located in the SE part of the lake. An analysis of the studied parameters shows two zones: eastern zone (fluvio-deltaic) and central-western zone (lacustrine). Received: 9 September 1998 · Accepted: 16 November 1998     

南海北部陆坡高饱和度天然气水合物气源运聚通道控藏作用

气源运聚通道与天然气水合物富集成藏关系密切。利用准三维地震资料并结合钻探成果,深入研究了神狐海域GMGS3钻探区高饱和度水合物站位气源运移疏导通道地质地球物理特征及其控藏作用。结果表明:高饱和度水合物产出站位发育多种类型运移疏导通道,且与BSR空间耦合关系较好;紧邻BSR之下为强振幅反射,强振幅下部游离气体充注现象明显,表明水合物稳定域下部存在气体运移的通道,且深部气体向浅层发生了运移。深大断裂、底辟及气烟囱构成了沟通深部热解气及浅层生物气与浅层温压稳定域的垂向通道,在这些通道上方可以直接形成水合物;浅部滑塌面、水道砂及海底扇构成的高孔渗连续性砂体为浅层生物气及深部运移而来的部分热成因气横向运移通道,气体的侧向运移扩大了气体供给范围,增加了矿体横向展布规模。文章认为,天然气运移疏导系统与其他成藏要素匹配良好的构造和区域是勘探高饱和度水合物的有利目标。     

Chemical composition of pore waters of bottom sediments in different Baikal basins

Results of study of pore waters of bottom sediments from different Baikal basins are presented. The most typical ion distribution patterns reflecting the Baikal sediment diagenesis are given. We have established that in areas with regular sedimentation, in the absence of faults and inflows, the sediment pore waters of three lake basins inherit the chemical composition of the Baikal water, which is stable in time and space. Changes in pore water composition mark general natural anomalies, such as the presence of active faults, tectonic movements, and inflows along permeable zones. In areas with the subsurface occurrence of gas hydrates, thorough long-term research has revealed an anomalous composition of pore waters. It has been established that the anomalies are caused by a discharge of deep-level mud-volcanic fluids. The ejected mud-volcanic waters differ from each other in mineralization, ion composition, and sources, which determines the difference in hydrate formation and the composition of gas hydrates.