Changes in morphology and soil nutrient patterns of nebkhas in arid regions along a precipitation gradient

Nebkhas, discrete mounds of sand and vegetation, are a common landscape feature critical to the stability of desert ecosystems and supported by limited precipitation. Nebkha morphology and spatial pattern vary in landscapes, but it is unclear how they change along precipitation gradients in arid and semi-arid regions. In this study we determined morphology and soil nutrient patterns of nebkha from different regions of northwestern China. The objective of this study was to understand zonal differences among nebkhas and how morphological characteristics and soil nutrient patterns of nebkha change along a precipitation gradient in northwestern China. Our results shows that mean annual precipitation(MAP) had significant effects on morphological characteristics of nebkhas such as height, area, and volume which significantly decreased with an increase in MAP. MAP had significant positive effects on shrub cover and species richness of nebkha. Soil nutrients such as soil organic matter(SOM), total carbon(TC), total nitrogen(TN), and total phosphorus(TP) in the 0-10 cm layer increased with an increase of MAP, and soil nutrient content within nebkhas was higher than in inter-nebkha areas.We concluded that nebkhas are "fertile islands" with an important role in ecosystem dynamics in study regions. Further,MAP is a key factor which determined zonal differences, morphological, and soil nutrients patterns of nebkhas. However,disturbance, such as animal grazing, and planted sand-stabilizing vegetation accelerated the degeneration of nebkha landscapes. We recommend implementation of protective measures for nebkhas in arid and semi-arid areas of China.     

Erosion-reducing cover in semi-arid shrubland

Vegetation and small features of ground cover are known to affect erosion, but the areal extent of small features is rarely studied because they are difficult to estimate for large areas. We studied the variation in components of cover, with 67 sites representing the regional variation of vegetation and topography, in northwestern México. Surface-level cover, mostly by litter and gravel, was skewed to higher values than canopy cover, and only about one third of inter-plant points had bare soil. However, litter mass was not closely related to the spatial measure of ground cover. Drip height for intercepted precipitation was always <0.5 m and most obstructions were branches, not leaves. Soil roughness increased with slope gradient, suggesting it resulted from erosion. Neither land form (elevation, exposure and slope) nor species associations were strong factors in determining cover. However, the height of the vegetation was a good predictor of surface cover, drip height and canopy cover. Applied to erosion with the RUSLE model, this ground study estimated cover was better by more than an order of magnitude compared to a remote perception index. The dynamics of cover at surface level in arid and semi-arid shrublands warrants more attention.     

黑河流域干旱生态系统红砂荒漠空间斑块结构及其生态适应策略（英文）

In many arid ecosystems,vegetation frequently occurs in high-cover patches interspersed in a matrix of low plant cover.However,theoretical explanations for shrub patch pattern dynamics along climate gradients remain unclear on a large scale.This context aimed to assess the variance of the Reaumuria soongorica patch structure along the precipitation gradient and the factors that affect patch structure formation in the middle and lower Heihe River Basin(HRB).Field investigations on vegetation patterns and heterogeneity in soil properties were conducted during 2014 and 2015.The results showed that patch height,size and plant-to-patch distance were smaller in high precipitation habitats than in low precipitation sites.Climate,soil and vegetation explained 82.5% of the variance in patch structure.Spatially,R.soongorica shifted from a clumped to a random pattern on the landscape towards the MAP gradient,and heterogeneity in the surface soil properties(the ratio of biological soil crust(BSC) to bare gravels(BG)) determined the R.soongorica population distribution pattern in the middle and lower HRB.A conceptual model,which integrated water availability and plant facilitation and competition effects,was revealed that R.soongorica changed from a flexible water use strategy in high precipitation regions to a consistent water use strategy in low precipitation areas.Our study provides a comprehensive quantification of the variance in shrub patch structure along a precipitation gradient and may improve our understanding of vegetation pattern dynamics in the Gobi Desert under future climate change.     

试论青藏高原多年冻土类型的划分

本文采用综合分析与主导因素相结合的原则，以干燥度作为主要指标并参考年降水量，年平均相对湿度及气温较差等，结合地形因素将青藏庙的多年冻土划分为：湿润，亚湿润，半干旱，干旱和极干旱５种类型，并对各类型代表性和冻土地区进行分别论述。     

北方石质山区坡面土壤厚度分布特征——以北京市密云县为例

土壤厚度是土壤退化及土地生产力水平评价的一个重要指标。本研究应用插钎法,调查了北京市密云县山区50个基本抽样单元的坡面土壤厚度。对样点数据进行了统计分析,结果表明:平均土壤厚度为15cm。小于10cm的土壤占37%,小于20cm的土壤占76%,小于30cm的占90%。空间上土壤较厚的区域主要集中在西北和东北部植被覆盖较好的地区。对影响土壤厚度的因子进行分析发现:土壤厚度与海拔无明显相关性,而坡向对土壤厚度的影响较为明显,阴坡土壤厚度明显大于阳坡。土壤厚度与植被覆盖度和坡度明显相关,与植被覆盖度的相关系数为0.84,与坡度的相关系数为-0.40,二者都通过了显著水平为0.01的显著性检验。     

Spatial patch structure and adaptive strategy for desert shrub of Reaumuria soongorica in arid ecosystem of the Heihe River Basin

In many arid ecosystems, vegetation frequently occurs in high-cover patches interspersed in a matrix of low plant cover. However, theoretical explanations for shrub patch pattern dynamics along climate gradients remain unclear on a large scale. This context aimed to assess the variance of the Reaumuria soongorica patch structure along the precipitation gradient and the factors that affect patch structure formation in the middle and lower Heihe River Basin (HRB). Field investigations on vegetation patterns and heterogeneity in soil properties were conducted during 2014 and 2015. The results showed that patch height, size and plant-to-patch distance were smaller in high precipitation habitats than in low precipitation sites. Climate, soil and vegetation explained 82.5% of the variance in patch structure. Spatially, R. soongorica shifted from a clumped to a random pattern on the landscape towards the MAP gradient, and heterogeneity in the surface soil properties (the ratio of biological soil crust (BSC) to bare gravels (BG)) determined the R. soongorica population distribution pattern in the middle and lower HRB. A conceptual model, which integrated water availability and plant facilitation and competition effects, was revealed that R. soongorica changed from a flexible water use strategy in high precipitation regions to a consistent water use strategy in low precipitation areas. Our study provides a comprehensive quantification of the variance in shrub patch structure along a precipitation gradient and may improve our understanding of vegetation pattern dynamics in the Gobi Desert under future climate change.

     

喀斯特山地土壤侵蚀和产水量的最优解释力

喀斯特生态系统服务主导影响因子识别是科学治理石漠化的前提,然而环境因子对生态系统服务空间分布的解释力受尺度变换的影响,其尺度效应的定量研究仍需进一步加强。为定量厘定环境因子解释力的尺度效应,本文从多尺度视角出发,利用地理探测器定量分析不同空间分辨率下环境因子对土壤侵蚀和产水量的解释力,并探求其在不同地貌形态类型区的差异性规律。结果表明,坡度和植被覆盖度是影响土壤侵蚀空间分布的主导因子,两者的交互作用对土壤侵蚀空间分布的解释力更强。受研究区地形起伏普遍性和景观破碎化的影响,坡度和土地利用类型在低分辨率下解释力最优。降水、海拔和土地利用类型是产水量空间分异的主导因子。降水和土地利用类型的交互作用对产水量的解释力达95%以上,海拔在不同地貌形态类型区的空间变异性影响其最优解释力水平。具体表现为：在台地、丘陵类型区海拔空间变异性较小,在高分辨率下其解释力最优;在山地类型区,海拔空间变异性较大,在低分辨率下其解释力更强。本文通过多尺度分析定量甄别生态系统服务变量的最优解释力,以期为喀斯特山地生态系统服务的主导因子精准辩识和分区优化提供途径和依据。     

Climate and surface properties: hydrological response of small arid and semi-arid watersheds

A positive relationship between annual rainfall and geomorphic processes (runoff and erosion rates) and environmental factors (water regime, soil and vegetation cover) is often assumed for arid and semi-arid areas with an annual rainfall in the range of 100–300 mm. This assumption disregards the fact that changes along a climatic gradient, at desert margins, are not limited to purely climatic factors. They are often accompanied by a parallel change in surface properties; especially the relative extent of rocky or soil covered surfaces that differ greatly in their response to rainfall. This raises the issue whether the change in surface properties along a climatic gradient enhances the assumed positive effects of rainfall increase or limits it. The hypothesis advanced in this paper is that runoff generation and rate in arid and semi-arid areas are primarily controlled by surface properties rather than by the absolute amounts of storm and annual rain amounts. Hydrological data collected at two instrumented watersheds, located one in an arid rocky area, and the second in a semi-arid soil covered area, support this hypothesis. The implications of data obtained for runoff generation and flow continuity under changing climatic conditions are analyzed. They point to the fact that the same regional climatic change may have different, and even opposite effects, on the hydrological response of different adjoining surface units. This response is expected to be strongly controlled by the specific local surface conditions that prevailed in the area prior to the climatic change.     

Effects of land cover and soil properties on denitrification potential in soils of two semi-arid grasslands in Inner Mongolia,China

High N₂O emissions have been observed in semi-arid grasslands, especially during freeze/thaw periods, when denitrification might be the main process of N₂O production. However, there have been few denitrification studies in semi-arid grassland. This study was designed to determine the denitrification potential of four representative land cover types (typical steppe, meadow steppe, marshland, arid steppe) in two grasslands in Inner Mongolia, China. We found that soils from different land cover types exhibited significantly different denitrification potentials, with highest rates in marshland and lowest rates in arid steppe. Denitrification potentials were maximal in the upper layer and generally decreased with depth for all soils. Soil water content, soil carbon and nitrogen availability, and C/N ratio were found to be significantly correlated with denitrification potentials in all soils. Addition of glucose or/and nitrate significantly increased denitrification activities throughout the profile for all soils, suggesting that both bioavailable carbon and nitrogen were limiting factors of denitrification in these grasslands soils. However, further field studies are needed to translate the denitrification potentials determined in laboratory measurements to denitrification rates under field conditions.     

模拟增温和改变降雨频率对干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的影响

温度和降水是干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的重要扰动因子,全球气候变化导致的未来干旱半干旱区增温和降水变率增大对土壤呼吸有着重要影响.研究通过人工设置P16×2.5mm、P8×5mm、P4×10mm、P2×20mm、P1×40mm的降雨频率梯度和增温2℃左右的控制试验,探讨不同降雨频率和增温处理对干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的影响,以及...     

Structure of soil bacterial communities in relation to environmental variables in a semi-arid region of Mongolia

Patterns in soil bacterial communities, and the factors that determine them, have been little explored in arid and semi-arid environments. It is unclear to what extent the diversity and community composition of arid-land soil bacterial communities follow vegetation habitats, or conversely other relatively independent soil variables. It is also unclear whether the factors (e.g. pH) that contribute to variation in bacterial communities in some moister environments also operate on a local scale in semi-arid environments. To identify the main factors in shaping bacterial community structure in semi-arid environments, we sampled a mosaic of habitats under different vegetation, landscape and edaphic conditions in central Mongolia, including steppe, forest-steppe, and abandoned wheat field. Soil DNA was extracted and pyrosequenced for 16S rRNA gene identification. NMDS results showed that bacterial community structures are slightly different from one habitat to another. However, the similarity between communities both within and between habitats is determined more strongly by soil texture than by vegetation type and drainage conditions. Moreover, the relative abundances of certain phyla are correlated with specific soil properties such as salinity and soil texture, in ways that have not previously been found in semi-arid environments. Actinobacteria, for example, show a negative correlation with salinity and Bacteroidetes display a positive relationship with percentage silt and clay. It also appears that the most important environmental variables (soil texture and salinity) affecting the bacterial community within this semi-arid environment are different from those found in moister environments, with no detectable effect of pH.     

低覆盖度治沙理论的核心水文原理概述

土壤水分的渗漏过程是陆地生态水文的3个最核心过程之一,降水向土壤深层渗漏或者补给地下水,关系到干旱沙区水平衡维持和植被稳定持续发育.多年的治沙实践和研究结果表明:(1)天然分布稳定的沙生植被,覆盖度一般低于30％,降水均能够渗漏到土壤深层或者补给地下水;(2)人工营造的固沙林,当林分的覆盖度大于40％后,林下土壤含水率...     

2000—2017年中国区域地表反照率变化及其影响因子

在全球气候变暖的背景下,地表反照率已成为地表辐射平衡和气候研究的重要参数之一。利用中国陆地生态系统研究网络（Chinese Ecosystem Research Network,CERN）提供的34个站点辐射数据、GLASS地表反照率产品、ERA-Interim再分析资料、MODIS EVI（MOD13A3）和中国气象数据共享网提供的气象数据,基于Sen's Slope趋势分析方法,分析不同生态系统地表反照率的变化特征;利用全子集回归和分层分解方法计算地表反照率与各要素之间的相关性和相对重要性;探讨各气候因子对地表反照率的影响。结果表明,2000—2017年裸土地和裸岩砾石地变化率最大,冬季斜率达-0.083% yr^-1。生长季地表反照率与降水、增强型植被指数（Enhanced Vegetation Index,EVI）、土壤水分和气温显著相关的像元分别占总像元的73%、79%、56%和86%。EVI是干旱和半干旱地区地表反照率变化的主导因素,其对地表反照率变化的独立贡献率分别为41%和56.18%。7月东北地区降水量和气温对地表反照率的影响大约滞后2个月;内蒙古沙漠地区和长江中下游平原土壤水分对地表反照率的影响大约滞后1~2个月。     

Comparison of soil bacterial communities associated with actinorhizal, non-actinorhizal plants and the interspaces in the sclerophyllous matorral from Central Chile in two different seasons

The spatial heterogeneity of resources in desert and semi-arid shrubland appears to be important in determining higher soil bacteria abundance around plants than in soil without plant cover. Thus, these bacterial communities could be important contributors to nutrient cycling in arid ecosystems. Bacterial diversity from Chilean sclerophyllous matorral was determined by Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (T-RFLP). Soil samples associated with the actinorhizal plant Colletia hystrix, non-actinorhizal plants and interspace soil without plant cover, were collected in May and October. The non-actinorhizal and interspace soil differed significantly in their potassium content in May and pH in October. The T-RFLP analysis revealed differences in the bacterial community structure from the different habitats. The soil bacterial communities associated with plants were the most similar, whereas the interspace soil community differed in both sampling times. The factors that best explained the groupings were potassium and pH. The greatest diversity was observed in the interspace soil. The Microbial Community Analysis showed a significant proportion of T-RFs identified as Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Likewise, spatial and temporal differences were observed in the main groups' abundance. The dominance of Firmicutes suggests that the sclerophyllous matorral could be a different ecosystem to other arid and semi-arid soils with respect to the bacterial community structure.     

Comparison of landslide susceptibility based on a decision-tree model and actual landslide occurrence: The Akaishi Mountains, Japan

This paper proposes a statistical decision-tree model to analyze landslide susceptibility in a wide area of the Akaishi Mountains, Japan. The objectives of this study were to validate the decision-tree model by comparing landslide susceptibility and actual landslide occurrence, and to reveal the relationships among landslide occurrence, topography, and geology. Landslide susceptibility was examined through ensemble learning with a decision tree. Decision trees are advantageous in that estimation processes and order of important explanatory variables are explicitly represented by the tree structures. Topographic characteristics (elevation, slope angle, profile curvature, plan curvature, and dissection and undissection height) and geological data were used as the explanatory variables. These topographic characteristics were calculated from digital elevation models (DEMs). The objective variables were landslide occurrence and reactivation data between 1992 and 2002 that were depicted by satellite image analysis. Landslide susceptibility was validated by comparing actual data on landslides that occurred and reactivated after the model was constructed (between 2002 and 2004).This study revealed that, from 2002 to 2004, landslides tended to occur and reactivate in catchments with high landslide susceptibility. The landslide susceptibility map thus depicts the actual landslide occurrence and reactivation in the Akaishi Mountains. This result indicates that the decision-tree model has appropriate accuracy for estimating the probabilities of future landslides. The tree structure indicates that landslides occurred and reactivated frequently in the catchments that had an average slope angle exceeding ca. 29° and a mode of slope angle exceeding 33°, which agree well with previous studies. A decision tree also quantitatively expresses important explanatory variables at the higher order of the tree structure.     

两种干湿气候类型评价方法在内蒙古地区应用比较

Holdridge可能蒸散率(PER)和徐文铎湿润指数(HI)在内蒙古地区的应用结果表明:两种干湿气候类型划分差异主要体现在半干旱和亚(半)湿润区,其余气候类型地域分布比较一致。其年代变化的共同点是半干旱区+干旱区+极干旱区面积逐年增加,亚(半)湿润区+湿润区面积逐年减少。PER分类与降水量分布规律明显,而HI分类更多体现了温度和降水的综合影响。在考虑下垫面特征的情况下,徐文铎湿润指数更符合内蒙古地区干湿气候带划分。30 a温度与降水相关分析表明:温度呈显著增加趋势,而降水的下降趋势属正常气候波动。     

过去45年中国干湿气候区域变化特征

利用中国1960-2004年降水、平均气温、风速和相对湿度等资料,分别采用降水指数和干湿分类函数作为干湿区域的划分标准,将中国划分成三个干湿等级的区域:干旱区、半干旱区和湿润区。结果发现无论以哪种指数作为衡量干湿的标准,我国过去45年的干旱总面积,即干旱区面积和半干旱区面积之和,均为扩大趋势,湿润面积则为减小趋势,这种情况在近十年表现得尤为显著。而半干旱区面积在分析时段变化的幅度最大,是干湿变化的敏感区。但两种结果之间也存在不同:降水指数的结果表明干旱区和湿润区的面积减小,半干旱区的面积增大;而干湿分类函数得到的各个干湿区域的面积则表明干旱区的增大,半干旱区和湿润区的减小。从定量的角度讲,干湿分类函数估算的干旱区面积的45年平均值比降水指数估算的干旱区面积的45年平均值约大15%,其估算的半干旱面积的45年平均值比降水指数的结果约小9%,而两者湿润区面积的45年平均值相差约6%。最后给出了仅分析降水指数就能反映干湿状况的地区和必须分析干湿分类函数才能确定干湿状况的区域。     

Analysis of soil surface component patterns affecting runoff generation. An example of methods applied to Mediterranean hillslopes in Alicante (Spain)

Spatial patterns of soil surface components (vegetation, rock fragments, crusts, bedrock outcrops, etc.) are a key factor determining hydrological functioning of hillslopes. A methodological approach to analyse the patterns of soil surface components at a detailed scale is proposed in this paper. The methods proposed are applied to two contrasting semi-arid Mediterranean hillslopes, and the influence of soil surface component patterns on the runoff response of the slopes was analysed. A soil surface components map was derived from a high resolution photo-mosaic obtained in the field by means of a digital camera. Rainfall simulation experimental data were used to characterise the hydrological behaviour of areas with a specific pattern of soil surface components by means of the parameters of the Horton equation. Plot runoff data were extrapolated at the hillslope scale based on the soil surface component maps and their hydrological characterisation. The results show that in both slopes runoff generation is concentrated up- and downslope, with a water accepting area in the centre of both slopes disrupting the hydrological connectivity at the slope scale. This reinfiltration patch at the centre of the slope is related to the type of soil surface component and its spatial pattern. Herbaceous vegetation and ‘on top rock fragments’ increase the infiltration capacity of soils at the centre of the slope. In contrast, embedded rock fragments, rock outcrops, as well as crusted surfaces located in the upper and lower slopes favour runoff generation in these areas. In addition, a general pattern of water contribution areas downslope is apparent on both slopes. The south-facing slope shows a higher hydrological connectivity and more runoff. 55% of the surface of the south-facing slope produces runoff at the end of a 1 hour rainfall event and 17.3% of the surface is covered by a runoff depth between 0.5 and 1 mm. While on the north-facing slope only 38% of the surface produces runoff under the same conditions. Longitudinal connectivity of runoff is higher at the south-facing slope where more runoff-generating surfaces appear and where the vegetation pattern favours the connectivity of bare areas.     

泾河流域上游景观尺度植被类型对水文过程的影响

选择具有土石山区的泾河流域上游为研究对象,应用生态水文模型SWIM对上游景观尺度下各植被类型水文效应进行了模拟,并针对上游土石山区和黄土区分海拔段进行了植被分布的水文格局影响分析。结果表明：泾河流域上游的森林、农田、草地各植被类型的蒸散及组分、径流深和土壤深层渗漏各水文过程具有显著差异,不同区域（土石山区和黄土区）的同一植被类型的各水文过程明显不同;同时,植被景观格局存在区域和海拔差异,这使得不同区域和海拔段的各水文过程有所不同。如在土石山区,以森林为主的海拔段2 250-2 922 m降水量和蒸散量均最大（分别为641 mm和484 mm）,以农田、草地和森林均有分布的海拔段1 750-2 250 m降水量较大（590 mm）,但蒸散量最低（仅为434 mm）;而在较为干旱的黄土区（降水量为514 mm）以农田和草地为主两个海拔段（1 026-1 350 m和1 350-1 750 m）的蒸散量较高（分别为458 mm和440 mm）。另外,从各水文过程要素与降水的比值看,两个区域之间差异比较明显,但同一区域不同海拔段间差异不明显。     

The progress and prospects of nebkhas in arid areas

Nebkhas are often extensively distributed in arid and semi-arid areas, and play an important role in the stabilization of ecological environment in these areas. This paper reviews the following aspects, including formation and succession, spatial distribution, shape and surface airflow characteristics, balance between erosion and deposition, ecological and physiological characteristics of vegetation, response to precipitation and groundwater, soil properties as well as the protection measures. We found that nebkhas were studied without differentiation of succession periods, and shape characteristics, surface airflow, soil properties as well as vegetation dynamics in different succession periods were not fully understood, which made it difficult to explain the succession dynamics of nebkhas and its affecting factors. Previous studies of nebkhas were over-emphasized for its role as an indicator of land degradation, while its ecological functions in degraded ecosystems were neglected, which was unfavorable for the ecological restorations in arid and semi-arid areas. Future studies should pay more attention to the variation of vegetation, soil as well as hydrological process in the succession of nebkhas and its interaction between different influencing factors. In addition, positive role of nebkhas in degraded ecosystems in arid and semi-arid areas should be fully discussed. According to the data got from the above, effective protection measures of nebkhas should be explored.