Environmental changes,remote sensing,and infrastructure development: The case of Egypt's East Port Said harbour

Using Landsat TM data, this article examines the environmental impact of the East Port Said harbour project on the surrounding landscape. The optimum three-band combination and the most appropriate multispectral bands were selected to enhance the images and monitor land cover changes for the periods of 1984–1991 and 1991–2003. The results indicate that wetland areas declined from 103 km² in 1984 to 30 km² in 2003. In addition, the surface area of El-Malha Lake has shrunk from 27 km² to 18 km² over the same period. In contrast, the area covered by salt crust has increased from 11 km² in 1984 to 19 km² in 2003. Urban land use and designed cultivated lands were also significant in 2003, covering 49 km² and 71 km², respectively. The rate of shoreline change between 1984 and 2003, the period when the East Port Said harbour was constructed, was calculated. Vector data indicate that the rate of shoreline loss was ?13 m/year from 1984 to 1991 and ?15 m/year from 1991 to 2003. Despite the fact that construction of the East Port Said harbour caused significant changes in the study area, there are several factors controlling coastline and land cover changes including industrial development and fish cultivation farms.     

Relationships between stand density and canopy structure in a dryland forest as estimated by ground-based measurements and multi-spectral spaceborne images

This paper describes evaluation of forest stand density combining satellite imagery with forest inventory data set. The degree of canopy cover is described in terms of fractional vegetation cover (FVC) obtained by a linear mixture model applied on multi-spectral IKONOS image and canopy cover (CC). CC was calculated from field measurements of crown width of 646 standing trees sited within 72 circular (200 m²) plots. A comparison between CC and FVC shows that the former can be accurately represented by the latter linking in-situ measured forest characteristics with surface reflectance measured by a satellite.Stand density expressed as an absolute term (number of trees per unit area) showed high and significant positive correlation to FVC (R² = 0.96) and to relative density measure (Crown Competition Factor; R² = 0.89).In order to show the applicability of the presented approach for managerial practices, a map of the spatial distribution of stand density within the forest was produced using the above-mentioned correlations. Its quality was verified against an independent data set of ground measurements. The correlation between field- and map-based number of trees per unit area was found to be satisfactory (R² = 0.4; p < 0.05), even though a slight lack of sensitivity was evident for low-density stands.     

Compensating for diminishing natural water: Predicting the impacts of water development on summer habitat of desert bighorn sheep

Artificial water sources have been used for decades to enhance and restore wildlife habitat but the benefits of their use have been subject to debate. During the past century, the number of natural springs in Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA, has declined. In response to concerns about the viability of the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) population, a number of water developments were constructed throughout the park. We modeled potential historical and present-day summer habitat of female bighorn sheep to evaluate the effectiveness of the artificial and remaining natural water sources in maintaining habitat and to determine how loss of artificial sources might affect future habitat availability. Prior to 1950, 583.5 km² of summer habitat was potentially available. Presently, only 170.6 km² of habitat is available around natural water sources and 153.5 km² is available around guzzlers. When all perennial water sources are included in the habitat model (minus overlap), 302.3 km² of summer habitat is potentially available. This represents only 51.7% of summer habitat available prior to 1950. Without artificial water developments, 47.7% of present-day summer habitat would be lost, which raises important management questions regarding the debate about what is natural or artificial within otherwise protected areas.     

Fluctuations of the Última Esperanza ice lobe (52°S), Chilean Patagonia,during the last glacial maximum and termination 1

We present a new record from the Última Esperanza region (51°25’-52°25'S), southwestern Patagonia, to unravel the timing and structure of glacial fluctuations during the Last Glacial Termination (T1). This sector of southern South America represents the only windward-facing continental landmass in the Southern Hemisphere that intersects the core of the Southern Westerly Wind belt.Geomorphic, stratigraphic and geochronological evidence indicate the following stages during and since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM): (i) deposition of prominent moraine complexes during at least two advances dated between ~ 39 and > 17.5 ka; (ii) development of an ice-dammed proglacial lake (glacial lake Puerto Consuelo) accompanying ice recession; (iii) active deposition of moraine complexes at intermediate positions followed by recession at ≥ 15.2 ka; (iv) lake level drop and subsequent stabilization between 15.2-12.8 ka; (v) a glacial readvance in glacial lake Puerto Consuelo between 14.8-12.8 ka; (vi) ice recession, stabilization, and lake level lowering between 12.8-10.3 ka; and (vii) glacial withdrawal and disappearance of glacial lake Puerto Consuelo prior to 10.3 ka. By comparing our results with the chronologies from neighboring regions we explore whether there was a consistent temporal/geographic pattern of glacial fluctuations during the LGM and T1, and examine their implications at regional, hemispheric, and global scales. The correspondence of these variations with key paleoclimate events recorded in the Southern and the Northern Hemispheres suggest a common forcing that, most likely, propagated through the atmosphere. Regional heterogeneities at millennial timescales probably reflect the influence of processes related to deep ocean circulation, and changes in the position/intensity of the Antarctic Polar Front and Southern Westerly Winds.     

Spatial expansion and water requirements of urban agriculture in Khartoum,Sudan

Urban agriculture (UA) in Khartoum, Sudan, contributes to meeting the increasing food demand of the city's rapidly growing population, but its spatial extent, development over time and resource consumption are unknown. To fill this knowledge gap, we analyzed scenes captured by Landsat satellites in 1972, 1987 and 2000. For each dataset, we calculated the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and classified all grid cells with NDVI values higher than one standard deviation above the mean as vegetated land. We also quantified agricultural vegetation on aerial photographs taken in 1958 and on a recent Google Earth image. The built-up area of the city was estimated for each point in time. Based on these spatial estimates, we computed water consumption by UA based on geographic, temporal and climatic datasets and official data on the cropping patterns of Khartoum State, using the Penman–Monteith equation to estimate crop water demands, and assuming a water use efficiency of 0.56.Urban agriculture increased from 8751 ha in 1972 to 13,249 ha today. In the municipal core zone, UA decreased from 4799 ha in 1958 to 2869 ha today. Along the Nile, UA persisted through time, whereas many urban irrigation schemes have been pushed into the periphery. The built-up area increased strongly and today exceeds the UA area 5.5-fold. Estimated crop water demand on UA land increased from 241 to 365 million m³ year^?1 between 1972 and today.     

Limnological characteristics of vertical structure in the lakes of Syowa Oasis,East Antarctica

We investigated the vertical structure of physicochemical properties in 27 lakes at Skarvsnes and Langhovde, Syowa Oasis, East Antarctica, from December 2003 to February 2004. The lakes were classified into three types based on their origin and geographical characteristics: non-marine relic lakes, marine relic and lotic lakes, and marine relic and lentic lakes. We describe the physicochemical characteristics of each lake type. When the non-marine relic lakes were partly covered with ice, the water column was stratified beneath the ice. In the non-marine relic lakes, during the season with no ice cover, physicochemical parameters were uniform throughout the water column, probably due to frequent vertical mixing induced by wind force and thermal convection within the shallow basins. Similarly, in marine relic and lotic lakes, lake waters appeared to be completely mixed because of a large inflow of meltwater from glaciers and outflow to other lakes and the coastal sea. In the marine relic and lentic lakes, except for Lake Himebati-ike, the lake water was vertically stratified with a strong halocline. In Lakes Suribati-ike and Hunazoko-ike, salinity was very high (up to 20%) due to evapoconcentration. Lake Suribati-ike is a meromictic lake, with a monimolimnion developed below 10 m water depth.     

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity of soil fertility in the Central Monte desert (Argentina)

In arid environments, soil fertility exhibits a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity, which results from high climatic variability seasonally and heterogeneous plant distribution. However, because most desert areas have been altered by human activities, heterogeneous fertility would originate from grazing or logging activities. We evaluated spatial and temporal heterogeneity of soil fertility in cattle-excluded sites under and outside woody plant cover (Prosopis flexuosa and Larrea divaricata), and in sites disturbed by tree removal during wet and dry season in Ñacuñán Biosphere Reserve (Central Monte desert of Argentina). Soil organic matter, fulvic acids, bioavailable organic matter, and nitrate were lower outside plant canopy (8.9 mg g^?1, 0.03 mg g^?1, 8.2 mg g^?1, and 4.17 mg kg^?1, respectively). Total N, humic acids, and abundance of microbial functional groups did not show differences among sites. Most parameters differed between seasons, tending to be higher in the wet season. Overall soils of Ñacuñán Reserve are characterized by: a) more homogenous spatial pattern than expected from woody plant presence; b) very heterogeneous temporal pattern; and c) after two years, tree removal does not seem to induce infertile soil formation.     

Rb–Sr,Sm–Nd,and Ar–Ar isotopic systematics of lherzolitic shergottite Yamato 000097

Isotopic analysis of the Martian lherzolitic shergottite Yamato 000097 yields a Rb–Sr age of 147 ± 28 Ma with an initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of 0.710490 ± 0.000072, a Sm–Nd age of 152 ± 13 Ma with an initial ɛ¹⁴³Nd-value of +11.7 ± 0.2, and a ³⁹Ar–⁴⁰Ar age of ∼260 Ma. The near concordance of these ages, in combination with the Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd initial isotopic signatures, suggests that Yamato 000097 crystallized from low Rb/Sr, light rare earth element depleted source materials ∼150 Ma ago. Although the obtained ³⁹Ar–⁴⁰Ar age is significantly higher than the Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd ages, Yamato 000097 shows little or no evidence of trapped Martian atmospheric ⁴⁰Ar. The trapped ⁴⁰Ar concentration of Yamato 000097 is similar to that of Zagami, suggesting that both basaltic and lherzolitic shergottites may have similarly inherited excess ⁴⁰Ar from their magmas.The Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd ages, and initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ɛ¹⁴³Nd-values of Yamato 000097 and Yamato 793605 lie on the same isotopic ingrowth curves, suggesting that they came from very similar mantle sources. Allan Hills 77005 was also probably derived from the same source, but Lewis Cliff 88516 appears to be from a distinct but similar source. Yamato 000097 represents the most recent known magmatism from its source, and is the youngest Martian meteorite for which concordant Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd ages have been determined.     

Overflow probability of the Salt Lake in Hoh Xil Region

After the bursting of Huiten Nor in Hoh Xil Region in September, 2011, the topic on whether the water overflowed from the Salt Lake would enter into the Chumaer River and become the northernmost source of the Yangtze River has aroused wide concern from public and academic field. Based on Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI remote sensing images during 2010–2015, SRTM 1 arc-second data, Google Earth elevation data and the observation data from the Wudaoliang meteorological station, the study initially analyzed the variations of the Salt Lake and its overflowing condition and probability. The results showed that the area of the Salt Lake expanded sharply from October 2011 to April 2013, and then it stepped into a stable expansion period. On October 27, 2015, the area of the Salt Lake had arrived at 151.38 km², which was about 3.35 times the area of the lake on March 3, 2010. The Salt Lake will overflow when its area reaches the range from 218.90 km² to 220.63 km². Due to the differences between SRTM DEM and Google Earth elevation data, the water level of the Salt Lake simulated would be 12 m or 9.6 m higher than the current level when the lake overflowed, and its reservoir capacity would increase by 23.71 km³ or 17.27 km³, respectively. Meanwhile, the overflowed water of the Salt Lake would run into the Qingshui River basin from its eastern part. Although the Salt Lake does not overflow in the coming decade, with watershed expansion of the Salt Lake and the projected precipitation increase in Hoh Xil region, the probability of water overflow from the Salt Lake and becoming a tributary of the Yangtze River will exist in the long term.     

Observations of dry season surface energy exchanges over a desert clay pan,Queensland, Australia

Clay pans (playas) are common landforms of semi-arid and arid desert regions ranging in size from 1 to 2 km² to greater than 10,000 km². The first observations of surface energy exchanges over a clay pan in central Australia using the eddy covariance method are presented. Measurements were obtained in the late dry season (September) before the onset of the Australian summer monsoon under clear skies and weak synoptic winds for five consecutive days. Sensible heat flux displayed an upward trend over the observation period reaching a peak of approximately 50% of net radiation over the period, while latent heat flux declined as the clay pan became dryer. Ground heat flux was similar in magnitude to sensible heat flux reaching maximum values near noon, approximately 2 h before daily maximum sensible heat flux. Net radiation and ground heat flux both reached minimum values 1–2 h after sunset and then gradually increased towards sunrise, while sensible and latent heat flux remained close to zero. Bowen Ratio values increased from 4.08 to 6.12 over the study period as the surface dried. Results highlight clay pans as significant sources of sensible heat in desert landscapes.     

Comparative study of nitrogenase activity in different types of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert,Northwestern China

Biological soil crusts cover large areas of the Gurbantunggut Desert in northwestern China where they make a significant contribution to soil stability and fertility. The aim of this study was to quantify the potential nitrogen-fixing activity (NA) of different types of biological soil crusts in the Gurbantunggut Desert. The results suggest that NA (nmol C₂H₄ m^?2 h^?1) for each type of crusts was highly variable. Seasonal variation was also important, with all three types of crusts responding in a similar way to changes in environmental conditions. From March to May, NA was relatively low for all crust types. During this season, NA was 2.26 × 10³ for cyanobacterial crust followed by lichen crust (6.54 × 10²) and moss crust (6.38 × 10²). From June to October, all crust types reached their highest level of NA, especially lichen crust and moss crust (p < 0.01). The NA of cyanobacterial crust (9.81 × 10³) was higher than that of lichen crust (9.06 × 10³) and moss crust (2.03 × 10³). From November to February, when temperatures were consistently low (<0 °C), NA was at its lowest level, especially in cyanobacterial crust (4.18 × 10²) and moss crust (5.43 × 10²) (p < 0.01). Our results indicate that species composition is critical when estimating N inputs in desert ecosystems. In addition, all three types of crusts generally responded in a similar way to environmental conditions. The presence of N fixation activity in all crusts may contribute to the maintenance of fertility in sparsely vegetated areas and provide surrounding vascular plant with fixed nitrogen.     

Light responses of Carex planostachys from various microsites in a Juniperus community

Juniperus communities are found on over 50 × 10⁶ ha in arid and semiarid habitats in southwestern North America. The drought tolerant sedge Carex planostachys occurs below the canopy in some of these communities. Cover and biomass of C. planostachys are high below the canopy and low in associated gaps. The purposes of this study were to investigate the temporal and spatial physiologic response of C. planostachys to abiotic changes, and determine it's light response characteristics from four contiguous microsites. Net photosynthesis was highest in spring when temperature was cooler and soil water higher, but low carbon uptake continued during summer drought. In addition, C. planostachys demonstrates a capacity to recover from extreme drought, despite water potential measured below ?9.0 MPa. Based on physiological light response curves and gas-exchange measurements, C. planostachys appears tolerant of shaded and full sun habitats. Light levels below the canopy were reduced compared to the gaps, but light saturation of C. planostachys did not change and net CO₂ uptake was only reduced slightly. Carbon uptake was coupled to light levels and not soil moisture. Observed differences in physiological attributes and variation in C. planostachys cover and biomass correspond to the presence or absence of the canopy. Low light compensation points, coupled with reduced respiratory demand, maximize photosynthetic gain in low light microsites. C. planostachys appears to acclimate across a range of light regimes, suggesting photosynthetic plasticity, allowing growth and survival in diverse light microhabitats. C. planostachys, tolerant of drought, appears anisohydric and demonstrates a capacity to acclimate to sun and shaded habitats, which could allow it to occur across a wider range of arid areas.     

Considerations on the chronological and causal relationships between talus flatirons and palaeoclimatic changes in central and northeastern Spain

Talus flatirons are relatively common landforms in arid and semiarid areas. They are frequent in the Duero, Tajo and Ebro Tertiary Basins in Spain. The generation of a flatiron requires the alternation of periods with a prevalence of accumulation processes followed by periods with a preponderance of erosion processes. In the three Tertiary basins considered here talus flatirons have been found in numerous places and up to five stages of slope evolution have been recognised in some locations. The second youngest stage (S₂) has been dated in several places in the Ebro and Duero Basins through ¹⁴C. The age of this stage ranges from 2529 ± 52 to 3590 ± 40 ¹⁴C yBP. The third youngest stage (S₃) has yielded dates of 27,862 ± 444 radiocarbon years BP in the Ebro Basin, and 28,550 ± 130 ¹⁴C yBP in the Duero Basin. S₄ has been dated in the Ebro Basin to 35,570 ± 490 ¹⁴C yBP. The S₂ slope facets correspond to the Iron and Bronze Age Cold Stages. The S₃ and S₄ flatirons may be correlated with the Heinrich events H₃ and H₄. These dates may indicate that the accumulation periods on the slopes correspond to cold global events. The dates obtained for the stages S₃ and S₄ in the central and northeastern sectors of Spain and their good correlation with Heinrich events suggest that flatirons could be related to climatic sequences in the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene.     

博斯腾湖的水环境保护与可持续利用对策

本文通过实地调查和对1999～2001年的监测资料的分析,从水环境污染物特性、水环境质量变化、排污源分布及排污量计算等方面探讨了博斯腾湖水环境问题及其成因。提出建立博斯腾湖保护区,加大管理检查和执法力度,加强对农田排污水的控制,强化重点排污口和重点城镇生活污水的排污管理,并通过湖滨湿地生态恢复工程、增源节水工程、加速湖水循环工程等措施,保护和改善博斯腾湖水环境     

Groundwater fluctuations induced by ecological water conveyance in the lower Tarim River,Xinjiang, China

Data from 40 monitoring wells across 9 sections of the lower Tarim River from 2000 to 2006 were analyzed to investigate the relationship between the transmission loss per unit river length and the change in groundwater depth. The relationship between the rise of the groundwater table (y) and the distance from the main river reach (x) was then assessed through regression analysis. We concluded that the maximum affected area was 1933 m away from the main river reach in the Alagan section, and the minimum affected area was 576 m away in the Kaogan section. In addition, after 8 water deliveries, the volume for recharging the groundwater was 78 248.7 × 10⁴ m³. Using the Yingsu section as an example, we found that the volume for recharging the groundwater decreased with additional periods of delivery except after the second and sixth water delivery The results revealed that the beneficial effect of an ecological water conveyance project on the ecosystem in the lower Tarim River is a long-term process. These findings may be useful for guiding studies on instream flow requirements and provide a scientific basis for implementing similar ecological projects in other areas.     

Great Lakes response to catastrophic inflows from Lake Agassiz: some simulations of a hydraulic geometry for chained lake systems

Simulations (216) were undertaken to evaluate the impact of typical Lake Agassiz outbursts on the upper Great Lakes under plausible variations in lake surface areas and sill widths. Flows over sills out of lakes are modelled using the equation for a broad-crested weir, with the model time increment set to one day. The model was evaluated for Lake Agassiz outlet sill widths of 1, 4, and 10 km and with outbursts ranging from 100 000 m³ s^–1 to 600 000 m³ s^–1. The surface area of Lake Agassiz was evaluated for 182 000 km² ±20%. The surface area of the upper Great Lakes were modelled as either Lake Algonquin (Superior, Huron and Michigan basins =200 000 km²) or Lake Minong (Superior basin 87 000 km²) with sill widths of 0.5, 1.5, and 3 km.Downstream peak discharge modelled at the outlet sill of the upper Great Lakes, was normally between 20 and 60% of the initial outburst, with a lagtime to peak usually between 80 and 280 days. Upper Great Lakes water level rises of between 2 and 20 m are calculated with rises to 36 m for some configurations. Rise magnitude is inversely related to the width of the outlet sills at both lake systems and to the surface area of the receiving lake.The modeling implies that measuring outflow from the upper Great Lakes, or water level rises, does not in itself determine peak or total outflow from Lake Agassiz unless the dimensions of the Lake Agassiz and upper Great Lakes outflow sills are also known.Lake level rises probably coincided on the upper Great Lakes with meltout from the winter freeze-up. Lake levels re-attain equilibrium values with respect to through flow within three years of an outburst. Substantial episodic lake level rises in the upper Great Lakes may have had severe impacts on the lake biota, for example via the affect on spawning grounds.     

Petrology of an unusual monomict ureilite,NWA1241

NWA1241 is an unusual monomict ureilite, consisting mainly of pigeonite, olivine, suessite, and carbonaceous materials. The modal ratio of pyroxene/(olivine + pyroxene) is higher than those of common monomict ureilites. Metallic phases in NWA1241 are mainly suessite, although metals in common ureilites are mainly kamacite. The high ratio of pyroxene to olivine and the abundant occurrence of suessite make the meteorite unusual. The suessite coexists with magnesian olivine and pyroxene in NWA1241, and this mineral assemblage indicates that the suessite was produced from FeO-bearing olivine and Ni-bearing kamacite at temperatures around 1500–1400K and oxygen fugacity of 10⁻¹⁸–10⁻²⁰ bars.Most ureilites experienced two-stage reduction. Stage-I reduction was a smelting process in ureilite parent bodies (UPB's) to form the framework of monomict ureilites. Stage-II reduction took place after catastrophic destruction of the UPB's to eject many fragmental blocks into space, where suessite (NWA1241) or Si-bearing kamacite (common ureilites) were produced together with the formation of reversely zoned olivines.     

Visual assessment of the Australian Land Erodibility Model

There is a growing requirement for techniques to assess land susceptibility to wind erosion, i.e. land erodibility, over large geographic areas (>10⁴ km²). This requirement stems from a lack of wind erosion research between the field (10¹ km²) and regional scales, and a need to evaluate the performance of spatially explicit wind erosion models across these scales. This paper addresses this issue by presenting a methodology for monitoring land erodibility at the landscape scale (10³ km²). First, we define criteria suitable for evaluating land erodibility based on empirical relationships between soil texture, vegetation cover, geomorphology, and wind erosion. The criteria were used to visually assess land erodibility over long distances (10³ km) using vehicle-based transects run through the rangelands of western Queensland, Australia. Application of the data for testing the performance of a spatially explicit land erodibility model (AUSLEM) is then demonstrated by comparing the visual assessments of land erodibility with the model output. The model performed best in the west of the study area in the open rangelands. In regions with higher woody shrub and tree cover the model performance decreases. This highlights the need for research to better parameterise controls on erodibility in semi-arid landscapes consisting of forested and rangeland mosaics.     

Climatic conditionality of radial increment of conifers and hardwoods in the middle taiga subzone of Central Siberia

Presented are the dendroclimatic research results on annual growth rings of spruce, fir, pine, birch and aspen growing in the middle taiga subzone of Central Siberia. The study established the general annual growth ring variability patterns for the conifers (spruce and fir) as well as for the hardwoods (birch and aspen), with the correlation coefficients between their chronologies estimated at 0.38 and 0.46 (p < 0.001), respectively. It is shown that under the given conditions the influence of the climatic factors accounts not more than for 53.5% of the variability in radial increment. For pine this influence is less clearly pronounced because of the content of the more mixed (compared with the other species of this territory) climatic signal. It is found that the temperature conditions of June are of first importance for all species under investigation. For birch and aspen the dependence of radial increment on the amount of precipitation in June is explained by moisture depletion at the period of the most active growth.     

Characteristics of the Gobi desert and their significance for dust emissions in the Ala Shan Plateau (Central Asia): An experimental study

Using intact samples of Gobi surfaces, we conducted wind tunnel experiments and related analyses to describe the surface characteristics of Gobi deserts and their significance for dust emissions in the Ala Shan Plateau, an area of Central Asia with high dust emissions. Under relatively high wind velocities (22 m s⁻¹), the total sediment transport approached 700 g m⁻², with the fine fractions (<50 μm in diameter) accounting for up to 26 g m⁻². In consecutive experiments, the emission rates decreased greatly due to depletion of erodible particles. In the Ala Shan Plateau, coverage by gravels varied, and aeolian sediment transport increased with increasing gravel cover (to about 30%); above that level, transport decreased. Because gravel cover was less than 30% in most areas, the gravel may not play important role in dust emissions in this region. Although the Gobi surfaces are covered by gravel, high clay contents that may restrain sediment transport. In the Ala Shan Plateau, dust emissions therefore appear to be controlled mainly by the availability of fine particles, which is in turn controlled by their deposition by ephemeral streams, by their creation via physical, salt, and chemical weathering, and by other processes such as aeolian abrasion.