Military and intelligence gathering activities in the EEZ: definition of key terms

In the practice of States and in discussions relating to military and intelligence gathering activities in exclusive economic zones, there is a lack of common understanding with regard to some of the key terms in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. This chapter reviews the origin and use and interpretation of such terms as “peaceful uses,” “peaceful purpose,” “freedom of navigation and overflight,” “residual rights,” “other internationally lawful uses of the sea,” “installations and structures,” “due regard,” “normal mode,” hostile intent, and abuse of rights with a view to clarifying their agreed meaning and identifying any areas of disagreement.     

Introduction: military and intelligence gathering activities in the exclusive economic zones: consensus and disagreement II

Maritime issues have risen to the forefront of current security concerns. In particular, military and intelligence gathering activities in foreign exclusive economic zones (EEZ) remain controversial. Exacerbating factors include advancing military and intelligence technology, a growing dialectic between coastal States and maritime powers, and new threats like terrorism and weapons of mass destruction. The Honolulu Meeting was part of a Dialogue series on these issues. Topics covered included a summary of the Tokyo Meeting; recent incidents and developments; different perspectives; the proliferation security initiative; implications for the EEZ regime; key terms: range of interpretation; hydrographic surveys and scientific research: differences, overlaps and implications; draft guidelines for military and intelligence gathering in the EEZ; means and manner of implementation and enforcement of any agreed rules; and conclusions and the way forward.     

Fisheries in the context of marine spatial planning: Defining principal areas for fisheries in the German EEZ

A method is presented to define principal areas for fisheries at high spatial resolution applicable to be implemented into marine spatial planning procedures. Vessel monitoring system (VMS) data from 2005 to 2006 are acquired to determine vessel-based fishing effort. Principal areas for the German exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are defined as areas in which 75% of the effort of either year is carried out. Examples are given for the 5 most abundant fisheries in the German EEZ in terms of vessel-based effort, i.e. gill netting, pelagic trawling, demersal otter board trawling and beam trawling >300 and <300 HP. A historical comparison for demersal otter board trawling shows relative stability of spatial utilization patterns in the North Sea section of the EEZ.     

Depth profiles of bacterioplankton assemblages and their activities in the Ross Sea

The identification of bacterial community structure has led, since the beginning of the 1990s, to the idea that bacterioplankton populations are stratified in the water column and that diverse lineages with mostly unknown phenotypes dominate marine microbial communities. The diversity of depth-related assemblages is also reflected in their patterns of activities, as bacteria affiliated to different groups can express different activities in a given ecosystem. We analysed bacterial assemblages (DGGE fingerprinting) and their activities (prokaryotic carbon production, protease, phosphatase, chitinase, beta-glucosidase and lipase activities) in two areas in the Ross Sea, differing mainly in their productivity regime: two stations are located in the Terra Nova Bay polynya area (highly productive during summer) and two close to Cape Adare (low phytoplankton biomass and activity). At every station a pronounced stratification of bacterial assemblages was identified, highlighting epipelagic communities differing substantially from the mesopelagic and the bathypelagic communities. Multivariate analysis suggested that pressure and indirectly light-affected variables (i.e. oxygen and fluorescence) had a great effect on the bacterial communities outcompeting the possible influences of temperature and dissolved organic carbon concentration. Generally activities decreased with depth even though a signal of the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) at one of the northern stations corresponded to an increase in some of the degradative activities, generating some ‘hot spots’ in the profile. We also found that similar assemblages express similar metabolic requirements reflected in analogous patterns of activity (similar degradative potential and leucine uptake rate). Furthermore, the presence of eukaryotic chloroplasts’ 16S rDNA in deep samples highlighted how in some cases the dense surface-water formation (in this case High Salinity Shelf Water—HSSW) and downwelling can affect, at least for some phylotypes, the bacterial (16S rDNA based) community structure of the dark ocean.     

Valuing the health benefits of physical activities in the marine environment and their importance for marine spatial planning

The marine environment provides a number of services which contribute to human well-being including the provision of food, regulation of climate and the provision of settings for cultural gains. To ensure these services continue to be provided, effective management is required and is being strategically implemented through the development of marine spatial plans. These plans require an understanding of the costs and benefits associated with alternative marine uses and how they contribute to human well-being. One benefit which is often difficult to quantify is the health benefit of engaging with the marine environment. To address this, the research develops an approach which can estimate the contribution aquatic physical activities makes to quality adjusted life years (QALYs) in monetary and non-monetary terms. Using data from the Health Survey for England, the research estimates that physical activities undertaken in aquatic environments at a national level provides a total gain of 24,853 QALYs. A conservative estimate of the monetary value of a QALY gain of this magnitude is £176 million. This approach provides estimates of health benefits which can be used in more comprehensive impact assessments, such as cost-benefit analysis, to compare alternative marine spatial plans. The paper concludes by discussing future steps.     

海洋权益维护执法对策分析

几年来中国海监的海洋权益维护执法工作,对海洋权益理论的深层次理解,对国际法、国内海洋法律法规的具体应用与实践产生了重要的推动作用。纵观美国、日本、韩国、俄罗斯以及南亚等国家对我国海洋权益侵害的具体事例,不难看出,发展态势愈演愈烈,维护海洋权益将是一场长期的斗争。     

浅谈专属经济区与公海生物资源养护和利用的法律制度

本文通过介绍《联合国海洋法公约》关于专属经济区和公海海域生物资源的养护和利用法律规定，结合我国国情分析了如何利用这些规定来保护和促进我国海洋渔业的发展。     

The FAO guidelines for the development and use of indicators for sustainable development of marine capture fisheries and an Australian example of their application

Guidelines for developing and implementing sustainability indicators for marine capture fisheries were drafted during a recent expert consultation jointly organised by Australia and FAO in Sydney (Australia). This paper provides an overview of the guidelines and illustrates their application with an Australian example. As a background to the guidelines, the concept of sustainable development (SD) for marine capture fisheries was discussed and an agreed set of definitions and usage of common terms developed. The guidelines then outline the five sequential steps that need to be addressed in developing a meaningful set of indicators in the context of a Sustainable Development Reference System (SDRS). The five steps are:

• 1.specifying the scope of the SDRS;
• 2.developing a framework to agree on components within the system;
• 3.specifying criteria, objectives, potential indicators and reference values;
• 4.choosing the set of indicators and reference values;
• 5.specifying the method of aggregation and visualisation.

These steps are further elaborated in terms of how to scope the SDRS, define the dimensions and hierarchical levels to be included in the system, set multiple objectives and link these to indicators and reference values (e.g. targets, thresholds and/or standards). The guidelines also provide some examples of possible indicators, criteria for selecting some indicators over others and present ways of aggregating and visualising the indicators so that progress towards achieving sustainable development can be communicated easily to decision-makers.     

A GIS modelling framework to evaluate marine spatial planning scenarios: Co-location of offshore wind farms and aquaculture in the German EEZ

The concept of co-location of marine areas receives an increased significance in the light of sustainable development in the already heavily used offshore marine realm. Within this study, different spatial co-location scenarios for the coupling of offshore aquacultures and wind farms are evaluated in order to support efficient and sustainable marine spatial management strategies. A Geographic Information System (GIS) and multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) techniques were combined to index suitable co-sites in the German exclusive economic zone of the North Sea. The MCE was based on criteria such as temperature, salinity or oxygen. In total, 13 possible aquaculture candidates (seaweed, bivalves, fish and crustaceans) were selected for the scenario configuration. The GIS modelling framework proved to be powerful in defining potential co-location sites. The aquaculture candidate oarweed (Laminaria digitata) revealed the highest suitability scores at 10–20 m depth from April to June, followed by haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) at 20–30 m depth and dulse (Palmaria palmata) and Sea belt (Saccharina latissima) at 0–10 m depth between April and June. In summary, results showed several wind farms were de facto suitable sites for aquaculture since they exhibited high suitability scores for Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) systems combining fish species, bivalves and seaweeds. The present results illustrate how synergies may be realised between competing needs of both offshore wind energy and offshore IMTA in the German EEZ of the North Sea. This might offer guidance to stakeholders and assist decision-makers in determining the most suitable sites for pilot projects using IMTA techniques.     

羊栖菜多糖抗肿瘤及其作用机制研究进展

羊栖菜(Sargassum fusiforme)多糖在多种肿瘤细胞系中表现出良好的抗癌活性,具有针对肿瘤细胞的选择活性和较小的毒副作用,可以作为现有肿瘤化疗药物的替代品进行开发。羊栖菜多糖主要通过诱导细胞凋亡作用于肿瘤细胞,其通过细胞周期停滞,增强机体免疫功能,改变细胞膜钙通道与流动性,破坏线粒体膜和产生一氧化氮来杀死癌细胞并防止转移。本文就国内外发表的羊栖菜多糖抗肿瘤功能及作用机制进行系统的归纳和总结,旨在为羊栖菜多糖抗肿瘤药物的深入研究、开发提供理论依据。     

Concepts for the implementation of biomarkers in environmental monitoring

Biomarkers are promising tools for biomonitoring, both in the marine and freshwater environment. It is however clear that much more information is needed about the exact relation between biomarker responses and the health and fitness of organisms, and even more so between biomarker responses and risks for the ecosystem. In order to address these questions, it is important to realise that the possibilities for the application of a biomarker depend on the concept that is chosen for environmental monitoring. The purpose of monitoring programs varies from simple screening to risk characterisation on the ecosystem level. This paper compares a number of these concepts with respect to how biomarkers can be used and with respect to the specific requirements for further implementation of biomarkers in environmental monitoring.     

紫外辐射对孔石莼抗氧化酶活性及其同工酶表达的影响

潮间带海藻不可避免地要遭受UV-B的胁迫。本研究以孔石莼(Ulva pertusa)为试材,研究了UV-B胁迫对其抗氧化酶体系中SOD、CAT、POX、APX、GR、GPX活性及前4种酶的同工酶表达的影响。结果显示:SOD、CAT、POX酶活性应激反应较为迅速;APX活性始终保持较稳定水平;GR、GPX酶应激表达启动稍晚,酶活高峰在处理中期6d时出现。SOD同工酶谱有4条酶带,在UV-B3种剂量处理下,SODⅠ及SODⅡ同工酶活性有所增加;POXⅡ同工酶活性呈小幅增加;在UV-B诱导下,CAT产生了2条新的同工酶谱带CATⅠ及CATⅡ;APX同工酶仅有1条谱带,在UV-B处理下与对照差异不大。抗氧化成分As A及GSH含量在处理前中期与对照相近。孔石莼的特定增长率(SGR)在1.6 kJ/(m~2·d)、4.8 kJ/(m~2·d)和9.6kJ/(m~2·d)3种剂量UV-B辐射处理下均呈下降趋势,且在后两种剂量处理下降低尤为显著,而相应的H_2O_2及TBARS含量呈不同程度增加。上述结果表明:孔石莼对UV-B辐射具有一定程度的耐受性,可以通过提高酶促过氧化体系活性来应答UV-B导致的氧化胁迫,并且酶活性变化体现出剂量和时间效应。     

浅析我国现行海洋执法体制问题与改革思路

1994年《联合国海洋法公约》生效后,建立了新的国际海洋法律制度,扩大了国家管辖海域的范围,丰富了海洋权益的内容。于是世界各国改革了海洋执法体制,建立了海上综合执法队伍,强化了立法、执法力度和综合管理工作。但是由于诸多原因,我国的海洋执法体制仍是传统的分散性行业管理体制,没有一支海上综合执法力量。目前也没有一个涉海部     

A hybrid model for numerical wave forecasting and its implementation——Ⅱ. The discrete part and implementation of the model

In the first part of the present paper we have explained why we manage to formulate another wave prediction model when so many of them, including the so-called third generation model, have already been in use. The wind-wave part of the proposed model has also been given. Now we proceed to discuss the swell part,the implementation of the model as a prediction method,mumerical experiments done with ideal wind fields and hindcasts made in the Bohai Sea,in the neighboring seas adjacent to China and in the Northwest Pacific.     

极区冰基拖曳式海洋剖面浮标系统低功耗设计与实现

针对极区冰基拖曳式海洋剖面浮标长期稳定获取极区水文和气象数据的工作需求,进行了浮标系统的低功耗方案设计。该方案基于超低功耗51系列微处理器,根据最低功耗工作模式与最短工作时间原则,采用高效的电源管理机制对浮标系统各个部分的能量消耗进行合理的分配与管理,并应用了Argos卫星通讯模块ARGOS-3 PMT-RFM的BPSK调制低速数据传输模式,可有效降低浮标系统的整体能耗。该浮标在北极冰站上长达1年的运行情况表明该系统工作稳定,所采用的低功耗能量管理方案实现了浮标系统长期连续观测的需求。该浮标的成功试验和推广应用有助于极地研究人员更准确地分析海冰变化过程。     

Global Exploration Models for Polymetallic Sulphides in the Area: An Assessment of Lease Block Selection under the Draft Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides

Draft regulations for prospecting and exploration of polymetallic sulphides in the “Area” are currently being considered for implementation by the International Seabed Authority. This paper examines possible models for allocation of lease blocks for exploration and the proposed schedule for relinquishing blocks during the exploration phase. One model for granting of exploration licenses under the proposed regulations involves contiguous lease blocks, similar to that being considered for nodules and crusts; another model involves non-contiguous blocks. An analysis of the occurrence and distribution of known polymetallic sulphides in 32 training areas shows that the regulations for prospecting and exploration of crusts likely cannot be applied equally to polymetallic sulphides.     

海洋观测数据管理系统的设计与实现

针对我国目前海洋环境监测工作对海洋观测数据从人工到计算机智能化管理的实际需求,设计开发了一套切实可行的海洋观测数据管理系统。系统利用先进的计算机软件技术和数据库管理技术,整合了现有的观测设备数据,实现了海洋观测数据的智能化管理,有效降低了海洋观测系统的管理成本,同时系统为海洋信息动态发布网站提供了更多的数据信息和资源。系统在国家海洋局闽东海洋环境监测中心站试运行半年,稳定可靠,综合效益明显。现场应用表明,该系统较好的完成了预期任务,具有较大的推广价值和应用前景。     

Regional cooperation for European seas: Governance models in support of the implementation of the MSFD

During the implementation process of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), Member States are expected to cooperate and coordinate at the regional sea level as wells as arrange stakeholder involvement. However, the MSFD does not specify any governing structures to do so. The aim of this paper is to address these key challenges of the MSFD by developing four governance models for regional cooperation and assess their impact on governance performance. The four models are based on the building blocks of stakeholder involvement (low or high) and decision-making power (binding or non-binding decisions): (1) Cross-border platforms; (2) Regional Sea Convention-PLUS; (3) Advisory Alliance and (4) Regional Sea Assembly. Secondly, the paper will do an ex ante assessment on how the alternative models will have an impact on governance performance. The assessment criteria for governance performance are: (a) costs to set up and run a model; (b) capacity to cooperate; (c) policy coordination; (d) institutional ambiguity; and (e) implementation drift. In addition to this assessment of the performance based on expert judgement (i.e. scientists of WP7 of the ODEMM project), 4 roundtable discussions have been undertaken in which stakeholders from the four regional seas did an assessment of the four models. The main conclusion is that increasing stakeholder participation, a much desired development in regional organisation of marine management as expressed by the stakeholder community, will increase the costs of the policy making process. If stakeholder participation is not embedded in a wider institutional setting in which the participation of stakeholders is directly related to the policy process and the degree to which decisions taken are binding, the increase of costs does not lead to a more smoothly running model.