Improved predictability of droughts over southern Africa using the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index and ENSO

The provision of timely and reliable climate information on which to base management decisions remains a critical component in drought planning for southern Africa. In this observational study, we have not only proposed a forecasting scheme which caters for timeliness and reliability but improved relevance of the climate information by using a novel drought index called the standardised precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), instead of the traditional precipitation only based index, the standardised precipitation index (SPI). The SPEI which includes temperature and other climatic factors in its construction has a more robust connection to ENSO than the SPI. Consequently, the developed ENSO-SPEI prediction scheme can provide quantitative information about the spatial extent and severity of predicted drought conditions in a way that reflects more closely the level of risk in the global warming context of the sub region. However, it is established that the ENSO significant regional impact is restricted only to the period December–March, implying a revisit to the traditional ENSO-based forecast scheme which essentially divides the rainfall season into the two periods, October to December and January to March. Although the prediction of ENSO events has increased with the refinement of numerical models, this work has demonstrated that the prediction of drought impacts related to ENSO is also a reality based only on observations. A large temporal lag is observed between the development of ENSO phenomena (typically in May of the previous year) and the identification of regional SPEI defined drought conditions. It has been shown that using the Southern Africa Regional Climate Outlook Forum’s (SARCOF) traditional 3-month averaged Nino 3.4 SST index (June to August) as a predictor does not have an added advantage over using only the May SST index values. In this regard, the extended lead time and improved skill demonstrated in this study could immensely benefit regional decision makers.     

Practical predictability of the standardized precipitation index on monthly and seasonal timescales

The SL-AV global semi-Lagrangian model of Hydrometcenter of Russia is used for considering the issues of practical predictability of the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) recommended by WMO. The index values are computed using the actual data (observations and reanalysis) taken as a reference and the forecast (hindcast) data interpolated to the stations (236 stations on the CIS territory). The analysis of practical predictability is based on diagnostic verification as well as on the model verification measures recommended by WMO. The statistically significant useful signal was detected on monthly and seasonal integration intervals. No useful information is found for the second- and third-month forecasts. A case study for the Republic of Kazakhstan (July 1989) demonstrates the dependence of forecast skill on the atmospheric circulation patterns. It is revealed that in the case of meridional atmospheric circulation forms the model resolution increases and, in some cases, not only moderate but also severe drought can be predicted.     

An investigation into the precipitation conditions in Romania using a GIS-based method

Summary This paper promotes a GIS-based method that allows the visualization, the identification and the qualitative assessment of relationships existing among a limitless number of climatological variables. We use a variety of precipitation variables from fourteen Romanian weather stations to demonstrate the techniques and discuss its benefits and limitations.     

基于多尺度SPI的中国南方大旱监测

用标准化降水指数(SPI)对2003年南方大旱发生、发展、持续、缓解进行全过程监测。2002年12月—2003年5月中国西南地区东部以及华南南部两广交界一带发生冬春连旱,其中西南地区东部冬旱最为严重,华南南部一带春旱最为严重。入夏以来南方大范围地区6—12月逐月均表现亏水,尤以7、8、10月亏水面积最广,强度最大。2003年6—12月长江以南大范围地区持续夏秋冬三季连旱,旱情极为严重,局部地区出现极端干旱,而长江以北则持续偏涝。2003年3月—2004年2月全年属于典型的"南旱北涝"型分布。基于多尺度SPI进一步统计南方地区1951—2007年历史上严重的夏秋冬季连旱事件。结果表明1980s以前发生过3次,分别是1956、1967、1978年,每11 a出现一次;1980s以后仅2003年发生1次。而这4次连旱的强度却是一次高于一次。     

Observed changes of drought/wetness episodes in the Pearl River basin, China, using the standardized precipitation index and aridity index

Monthly precipitation data of 42 rain stations over the Pearl River basin for 1960–2005 were analyzed to classify anomalously wet and dry conditions by using the standardized precipitation index (SPI) and aridity index (I) for the rainy season (April–September) and winter (December–February). Trends of the number of wet and dry months decided by SPI were detected with Mann-Kendall technique. Furthermore, we also investigated possible causes behind wet and dry variations by analyzing NCAR/NCEP reanalysis dataset. The results indicate that: (1) the Pearl River basin tends to be dryer in the rainy season and comes to be wetter in winter. However, different wetting and drying properties can be identified across the basin: west parts of the basin tend to be dryer; and southeast parts tend to be wetter; (2) the Pearl River basin is dominated by dry tendency in the rainy season and is further substantiated by aridity index (I) variations; and (3) water vapor flux, moisture content changes in the rainy season and winter indicate different influences of moisture changes on wet and dry conditions across the Pearl River basin. Increasing moisture content gives rise to an increasing number of wet months in winter. However, no fixed relationships can be observed between moisture content changes and number of wet months in the rainy season, indicating that more than one factor can influence the dry or wet conditions of the study region. The results of this paper will be helpful for basin-scale water resource management under the changing climate.     

近50多年来淮河流域气候水分盈亏时空变化

水分盈亏是区域干湿气候划分的重要依据。基于淮河流域63个气象台站1957—2014年逐日观测数据,运用累积距平、Mann-Kendall突变分析、Morlet小波分析及ArcGIS反权重空间插值法,结合Penman-Monteith蒸散计算模型获得淮河流域水分盈亏量的周期特征、突变特征及其时空分布特征,并分析其主要影响因子。结果表明:(1)水分盈亏月变化基本符合5月最低,7月最高。(2)从季节分布来看,水分亏缺面积秋季春季冬季夏季,亏缺程度春季最强。从平均年水分盈亏量分布来看,水分盈亏量由南向北递减。且不论季节还是年状况,山地及河流对区域水分盈亏量的南北递减存在滞后作用。(3)从各因子气候倾向率的时空分布来看,江苏东南部、山东西部、河南大部、湖北中部水分盈亏量变化的主导因子为潜在蒸散量,其他区域的主导因子为降雨量。(4)淮河流域水分盈亏量存在周期特征,第一主周期为10 a。     

Quantile regression and clustering analysis of standardized precipitation index in the Tarim River Basin,Xinjiang, China

Because drought is a very common and widespread natural disaster, it has attracted a great deal of academic interest. Based on 12-month time scale standardized precipitation indices (SPI12) calculated from precipitation data recorded between 1960 and 2015 at 22 weather stations in the Tarim River Basin (TRB), this study aims to identify the trends of SPI and drought duration, severity, and frequency at various quantiles and to perform cluster analysis of drought events in the TRB. The results indicated that (1) both precipitation and temperature at most stations in the TRB exhibited significant positive trends during 1960–2015; (2) multiple scales of SPIs changed significantly around 1986; (3) based on quantile regression analysis of temporal drought changes, the positive SPI slopes indicated less severe and less frequent droughts at lower quantiles, but clear variation was detected in the drought frequency; and (4) significantly different trends were found in drought frequency probably between severe droughts and drought frequency.     

Trend analysis of climatic variables and their relation to snow cover and water availability in the Central Himalayas: a case study of Langtang Basin,Nepal

Theoretical and Applied Climatology - This paper investigates the long-term monthly, seasonal, and annual trends of climatic variables, snow cover extent, and discharge in Langtang Basin, Central...     

Future changes in drought characteristics over South Korea using multi regional climate models with the standardized precipitation index

In this study, the projection of future drought conditions is estimated over South Korea based on the latest and most advanced sets of regional climate model simulations under the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) scenarios, within the context of the national downscaling project of the Republic of Korea. The five Regional Climate Models (RCMs) are used to produce climate-change simulations around the Korean Peninsula and to estimate the uncertainty associated with these simulations. The horizontal resolution of each RCM is 12.5 km and model simulations are available for historical (1981-2010) and future (2021-2100) periods under forcing from the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. To assess the characteristics of drought on multiple time scales in the future, we use Standardized Precipitation Indices for 1-month (SPI- 1), 6-month (SPI-6) and 12-month (SPI-12). The number of drought months in the future is shown to be characterized by strong variability, with both increasing and decreasing trends among the scenarios. In particular, the number of drought months over South Korea is projected to increase (decrease) for the period 2041-2070 in the RCP8.5 (RCP4.5) scenario and increase (decrease) for the period 2071-2100 in the RCP4.5 (RCP8.5) scenario. In addition, the percentage area under any drought condition is overall projected to gradually decrease over South Korea during the entire future period, with the exception of SPI-1 in the RCP4.5 scenario. Particularly, the drought areas for SPI-1 in the RCP4.5 scenario show weakly positive long-term trend. Otherwise, future changes in drought areas for SPI-6 and SPI-12 have a marked downward trend under the two RCP scenarios.     

Variations in vapor pressure and standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index since AD 1861 over the western Himalaya in India: inference from tree ring-width records

A regional tree ring-width index chronology prepared from various tree core samples of the western Himalaya has been analyzed in relation to climate fluctuations. The correlation analysis of tree ring chronology shows significant positive correlations with regional rainfall and standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) and negative correlations with temperature and vapor pressure (VP) during the spring season. The correlation coefficients (CCs) of tree ring-width index chronology with rainfall, temperature, SPEI, and VP during 1901–1990 are 0.50, −0.49, 0.65, and −0.51, respectively. All CCs are significant at 0.1% level. The highly significant CCs between tree ring-width index chronology and SPEI indicate that tree growth over the western Himalaya is more sensitive to soil moisture availability than rainfall, whereas the rising VP is found to have a significant moisture stress condition to tree growth by accelerating the evapotranspiration, which is not conducive for the development of tree growth in the region. So, based on the strong association between tree ring-width index chronology and SPEI; the reconstructions of SPEI and VP are developed back to AD 1861, that show the long period of dryness during 1936–1963.     

Projections of severe droughts in future climate in Southeast Brazil: a case study in Southern Minas Gerais State,Brazil

Theoretical and Applied Climatology - South of Minas Gerais state, in Southeast Brazil, is known for the coffee crop production (more than 30% of country’s production) and hydroelectricity...     

Evaluation of cloud and precipitation parameterization using a single-column model: A TWP-ICE case study

Cloud and precipitation parameterization schemes are evaluated, and their sensitivity to the method and/or parameters used to determine cloud physical processes is examined using a singlecolumn version of the Unified Model (SCUM). In the experiment for TWP-ICE, cloud fraction is overestimated (underestimated) in the upper (lower) troposphere due to the wet (dry) bias. The precipitation rate is well simulated during the active monsoon period, but overestimated during the suppressed monsoon and clear skies periods. In the moist convection scheme, trigger condition and entrainment process affect the lower tropospheric humidity through the impact on convective occurrence frequency and intensity, respectively. Strengthening the trigger condition and using the adaptive entrainment method alleviate the low-level dry bias. In the microphysics scheme, more large-scale precipitation is produced with prognostic rain, due to rain sedimentation considering vertical velocity of rain drop, than with diagnostic rain. Less ice/snow deposition with the prognostic two-ice category results in lower ice water content and upper-level cloud fraction than with the diagnostic splitting method for the twoice category. In the cloud macrophysics scheme, the prognostic cloud fraction and cloud/ice water content scheme produces a larger cloud fraction and more cloud/ice water content than the diagnostic scheme, mainly due to detrainment from moist convection (cloud source) that surpasses the effect of convective heating and drying (cloud sink). This affects temperature by influencing the radiative, convective, and microphysical processes. The experiment with combined modifications in cloud and precipitation schemes shows that interaction between modified moist convection and cloud macrophysics schemes results in more alleviation of the cold bias not only at the lower levels but also at the upper levels.     

Regional analysis of wind climatic erosivity factor: a case study in fars province, southwest Iran

Wind erosion climatic erosivity is a measure of the climatic tendency to produce conditions conducive to wind erosion. This research develops a method to determine the regional climate’s tendency to cause wind erosion on the basis of a physically based climatic factor (CE) and linear moment analysis (L-moments) in Fars province, southwest Iran. CE is calculable from wind speed quantiles and other available meteorological data. The wind quantiles can be estimated by a frequency analysis of the available wind data. Wind speed data are often either not available or are of short record length, and thus, CE estimates from such data have large standard errors. In such a situation, data from several sites can be used to estimate wind speed quantiles at each site based on a regional frequency analysis. Monthly averages of maximum daily wind speed of 19 meteorological stations in Fars province were used for regional analysis. Based on L-moment analysis, two homogeneous regions were determined. Regional wind speed quantiles were calculated, and the results were used to calculate CE values for two 6-month wet and dry periods for each homogeneous region. Furthermore, CE values were estimated for each station in the study area using a Weibull distribution, and the results were compared with the regional-based CE values. It showed that CE values estimated using the regional-based approach have smaller sampling variance compared to those obtained from the Weibull method. The proposed method can be used to evaluate the regional risk of wind erosion in arid and semi-arid environments.     

Effects of climatic change and climatic variability on the Thornthwaite moisture index in the Delaware River basin

The Thornthwaite moisture index is useful as an indicator of the supply of water in an area relative to the demand under prevailing climatic conditions. This study examines the effects of long-term changes in climate (temperature and precipitation) on the Thornthwaite moisture index in the Delaware River basin. Temperature and precipitation estimates for doubled-CO₂ conditions derived from three general circulation models (GCMs) are used to study the response of the moisture index for steady-state doubled-CO₂ conditions and for gradual changes from present to doubled-CO₂ conditions.Results of the study indicate that temperature and precipitation under doubled-CO₂ conditions will cause the Thornthwaite moisture index to decrease, implying significantly drier conditions in the Delaware River basin than currently exist. The amount of decrease depends, however, on the GCM climatic-change scenario used. The results also indicate that future changes in the moisture index will be partly masked by natural year-to-year variability in temperature and precipitation.     

Temporal and spatial patterns of modern climatic warming: case study of Northern Eurasia

Century-scale near-surface air temperature data from 744 weather stations in Russia and neighboring countries indicate that the temperature variations have distinct temporal patterns. Two periods, near the beginning and at the end of the 20th century, experienced the largest warming rates. Temperature changes in both periods were not uniform in time or space. We used statistical criteria and applied them to data at the weather stations to define a “tipping point” corresponding to the beginning of the modern climatic period. Results indicate that the position of this point depends on location, and in most cases falls into the interval from the early 1970s through the late 1980s. By means of spatial correlation analysis we delineated regions with coherent air temperature changes and calculated the region-specific rates and magnitudes of changes. We compared the distribution of regional tipping points in time and over space with large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns over northern Eurasia. We analyzed the 20th—early 21st century changes in the relative frequencies of the three circulation forms defined by Vangengheim-Girs classification, and found their qualitative correspondence with the spatial temperature patterns and spread of the tipping points in time. These results improve our knowledge about the regional structure and drivers of modern climate change in northern Eurasia, which is likely to hold the fingerprint of the anthropogenic signal. Findings of this study can be used to obtain insight into regional climatic changes in northern Eurasia over the next few decades.     

The use of rogation ceremony records in climatic reconstruction: a case study from Catalonia (Spain)

The use of rogation ceremonies due to environmental causes constitutes an important source of information in paleoclimatic reconstructions. Their specific characteristics and full documental records permit highly reliable series to be reconstructed with daily, monthly, seasonal or annual resolution over periods of several centuries (3–4 centuries in the case of Catalonia). The levels of intensity, reflected in the type of religious ceremony enacted, allows quantification. Comparative analysis is made possible by the similarity of the mechanisms developed in different localities. The use of these series in paleoclimatological studies is a promising line of research, particularly as regards the pro pluvia rogations celebrated in the Mediterranean countries and in South America.     

Development of a meteorological and hydrological coupling index for droughts and floods along the Yangtze River valley of China

To comprehensively investigate characteristics of summer droughts and floods in the Yangtze River valley, a meteorological and hydrological coupling index （MHCI） was developed using meteorological and hydro- logical data. The results indicate that： （1） in representing drought/flood information for the Yangtze River valley, the MHCI can reflect composite features of precipitation and hydrological observations; （2） compre- hensive analysis of the interannual phase difference of the precipitation and hydrological indices is important to recognize and predict annual drought/flood events along the valley; the hydrological index contributes more strongly to nonlinear and continuity features that indicate transition from long-term drought to flood conditions; （3） time series of the MHCI from 1960-2009 are very effective and sensitive in reflecting annual drought/flood characteristics, i.e. there is more rainfall or typical flooding in the valley when the MHCI is positive, and vice versa; and （4） verification of the MHCI indicates that there is significant correlation between precipitation and hydrologic responses in the valley during summer; the correlation coefficient was found to reach 0.82, exceeding the 0.001 significance level.