Synoptic variations in the chemical composition of atmospheric precipitation

Summary A study of the chemical composition of monthly precipitation samples from a number of stations in Sweden brings out the existence of significant variations in the relative proportions of chlorides and sodium depending upon the general character of the prevailing circulation. In maritime westerly flows the weight ratio of chloride to sodium decreases eastward to values which lie far below that value characteristic of sea water. In precipitation falling from arctic or polar continental air masses the chloride component is almost completely absent. The highest amounts of chlorides relative to sodium are observed in precipitation from warm and most air masses reaching Sweden from the south or southeast.Significant variations are observed also in the yearly means of the chloride to sodium ratio depending upon the dominance of maritime or continental air currents.A sketch map of the «average» chloride concentration in European precipitation prepared from miscellaneous older data lends support to the results of the analysis of the monthly data. The separation of the chemical components indicated by this study would seem to be of considerable geochemical interest since it would permit different maritime salts to be deposited in widely separated parts of the continents.The full paper will be published in «Tellus», VII (1955), 1.

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Zusammenfassung Ein Studium der chemischen Zusammensetzung von Proben des monatlichen Niederschlages einer Anzahl von Beobachtungsstationen in Schweden deckt die Existenz von deutlichen Schwankungen im relativen Verhältnis von Chlor und Natrium auf, welche vom allgemeinen Charakter der vorherrschenden Zirkulation abhängen. In maritimen westlichen Strömungen nimmt das Gewichtsverhältnis von Chlor zu Natrium gegen Osten zu auf Werte, welche weit unterhalb des charakteristischen Betrages für Meerwasser liegen, ab. Im Niederschlag, welcher aus arktischen oder polar-kontinentalen Luftmassen stammt, fehlt die Chlor-Komponente beinahe vollständig. Der höchste Betrag von Chlor relativ zu Natrium wurde im Niederschlag aus warmen und den meisten Luftmassen, welche Schweden vom Süden und Südosten erreichen, gefunden.Deutliche Schwankungen wurden auch in den Jahresmitteln des Verhältnisses Chlor zu Natrium beobachtet, welche von der Vorherrschaft der maritimen oder kontinentalen Luftströmungen abhängen.Eine schematische Karte der «mittleren» Chlor-Konzentration im Europäischen Niederschlag, welche mit Hilfe von verschiedenen älteren Daten entworfen wurde, unterstützt die Resultate der Analyse der Monatswerte. Die Trennung der chemischen Komponenten, welche durch diese Untersuchung angedeutet wird, scheint von beträchtlichem Interesse für die Erdchemie zu sein, da auf diese Weise verschiedene maritime Salze in weit auseinander liegenden Teilen der Kontinente abgelagert würden.Die ausführliche Arbeit wird in der Zeitschrift «Tellus», VII (1955), 1 veröffentlicht werden.

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Presented by Mr. ClaesRooth, Institute of Meteorology, University of Stockholm, Lindhagensgatan 124v,Stockholm (Sweden).     

Tritium in atmospheric precipitation over the European territory of CIS as an indicator of climatic changes

Many-year observational data on the ³H content of mean monthly precipitation at the network of stations in eight natural-climatic belts of the European part of the CIS are studied. Relationships between ³H concentrations and the climatic characteristics are analyzed. The ratio of the ³H content of precipitation in July to that in December is shown to be the best indicator of the atmospheric moisture transfer. The regular variations in the ³H content of precipitation with time (1980–1994) recorded in different natural-climatic belts testify that the western source of atmospheric moisture intensified during the above period and the climate on the European territory of CIS became warmer.Translated from Vodnye Resursy, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2005, pp. 247–253.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Vlasova, Ferronskii.     

Input of Pollutants with Winter Precipitation onto Vorkuta Agglomeration Territory

The chemistry of snow cover in the territory of Vorkuta agglomeration is assessed. Pollutant inputs onto the territories of sanitary protection zones of industrial plants of Vorkuta C., including the mines of Vorkutinskaya and Yun’-Yaga and cement factory are calculated. Schematic maps are constructed for the distribution of substances in the examined territory. The input of pollutants onto cement plant territory is shown to have decreased from the year of 2004 to 2014.     

Correlation of atmospheric occurences over the United States with some physical and chemical parameters. Part III: Frequencies of precipitation

Summary Correlation between some physical and chemical variables, measured at 28 stations of the United States Weather Bureau Network, and seasonal and annual frequencies of precipitation, has been attempted with the aim of gaining insight into the bearing of such variables, on occurrence of precipitation. — Concurrent trends of frequencies with local temperature functions, altitude parameters, precipitable water vapour increments, and some chemical species have been found.Contribution of the «Centro Nucleazione Aerosoli» of the National Research Council of Italy, Via Vettore 4 (Monte Sacro),Roma.     

Dissolution-filling mechanism of atmospheric precipitation controlled by both thermodynamics and kinetics

Affected by structural uplift,the Ordovician carbonate rockbed in the Tarim Basin,China,was exposed to dissolution and reformation of atmospheric precipitation many times,and formed a large quantity of karst caves serving as hydrocarbon reservoir.However,drilling in Tahe area showed that many large karst caves,small pores and fractures are filled by calcite,resulting in decrease in their reservoir ability.Calcite filled in the karst caves has very light oxygen isotopic composition and87Sr/86Sr ratio.Its 18OPDB ranges from 21.2‰to 13.3‰with the average of 16.3‰and its87Sr/86Sr ratio ranges from0.709561 to 0.710070 with the average of 0.709843.The isotope composition showed that calcite is related to atmospheric precipitation.Theoretic analyses indicated that the dissolving and filling actions of the precipitation on carbonate rocks are controlled by both thermodynamic and kinetic mechanisms.Among them,the thermodynamic factor determines that the precipitation during its flow from the earth surface downward plays important roles on carbonate rocks from dissolution to saturation,further sedimentation,and finally filling.In other words,the depth of the karstification development is not unrestricted,but limited by the precipitation beneath the earth surface.On the other hand,the kinetic factor controls the intensity,depth,and breadth of the karstification development,that is,the karstification is also affected by topographic,geomorphologic,climatic factors,the degree of fracture or fault,etc.Therefore,subject to their joint effects,the karstification of the precipitation on the Ordovician carbonate rocks occurs only within a certain depth(most about 200 m)under the unconformity surface,deeper than which carbonate minerals begin to sedimentate and fill the karst caves that were formed previously.     

Large-scale atmospheric patterns associated with mesoscale features leading to extreme precipitation events in Northwestern Italy

The synoptic and large-scale atmospheric conditions for heavy rainfall events in Northwestern Italy are diagnosed through the joint analysis of surface precipitation gauges and reanalysis atmospheric fields. Quantiles of local surface gauge precipitation observations are used to estimate the much larger-scale composite maps (conditional mean fields) of vertically integrated moisture flux, low-level winds, sea-level pressure, and 500 hPa height across the Atlantic and European domains. Remarkably, coarse-resolution reanalysis data show distinct synoptic conditions for heavy precipitation in localized regions that are below the resolution of the reanalysis. In this paper the key attributes of the new approach that is based on the joint analysis of gridded reanalysis and station data are presented. The application of the methodology are used to establish supporting evidence for hydrometeorological processes that lead to extreme precipitation across Northwest Italy. The results confirm the role of large-scale flow features that interact with regional topography in producing localized extreme precipitation. Whereas previous studies were based on a few case studies (modeled or observational), in this study the approach to producing a large ensemble of cases and composite statistics are introduced.     

Systematic measurement of the radioactivity of atmospheric precipitation and evaluation of the artificial radioactivity of the atmosphere

Резюме В статье приводится описание методики измерений искусственной радиоактивности осадков. В результате измерений более 90 образцов бЫло доказано, что здесь мЫ имеем дело с искусственной радиоактивностью, вЫзЫваемой наличием продуктов распада образующихся в результате опЫтов с атомнЫм оружием. Доказательством этого служит прежде всего убЫвание активности испарений с временем. Абсолютная оценка показала, что здесь речь идет об активности порядка 10⁻¹⁰–10⁻⁹ кюру/л. в воде осадков. ПроведеннЫе работЫ показали, насколько важнЫми могут бЫть подобнЫе измерения для метеорологических целей, но в особенности для фпзики облаков и осадков.

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Address: Vojenská lékařská akademie J. Ev. Purkynê, Hradec Králové.

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Address: Geofysikální ústav ĈSAV, odd. meteorologie, Hradec Králové 8.     

Effect of synthetic fertilizers and atmospheric precipitation on nitrogen enrichment in surface waters

The increase of the nitrate concentration in surface waters used as water supply resources has been investigated with a view to the effects of agricultural activities and atmospheric precipitation. The nitrate concentration increased beyond the acceptable limit for infants after 1975, when due to the permanent augmentation of the synthetic fertilizer rates the organic humus quantities decreased to a minimum. The variability of nitrate concentrations in atmospheric precipitation is dependent on the magnitude of precipitation and the intensity of industry in the given region. At an average value of atmospheric precipitation the nitrogen value in agricultural regions varies within 6 to 12 kg · ha^?1 · a^?1, in regions with extended industries up to 24 kg · ha^?1 · a^?1.     

The importance of energetic particle precipitation on the chemical composition of the middle atmosphere

An assessment is made of the relative contribution of certain classes of energetic particle precipitation to the chemical composition of the middle atmosphere with emphasis placed on the production of odd nitrogen and odd hydrogen species and their subsequent role in the catalytic removal of ozone. Galactic cosmic radiation is an important source of odd nitrogen in the lower stratosphere but since the peak energy deposition occurs below the region where catalytic removal of O₃ is most effective, it is questionable whether this mechanism is important in the overall terrestrial ozone budget. The precipitation of energetic solar protons can periodically produce dramatic enhancement in upper stratospheric NO. The long residence time of NO in this region of the atmosphere, where catalytic interaction with O₃ is also most effective, mandates that this mechanism be included in future modelling of the global distribution of O₃. Throughout the mesosphere the precipitation of energetic electrons from the outer radiation belt (60°70°) can sporadically act as a major local source of odd hydrogen and odd nitrogen leading to observable O₃ depletion. Future satellite studies should be directed at simultaneously measuring the precipitation flux and the concomitant atmosphere modification, and these results should be employed to develop more sophisticated models of this important coupling.     

Distribution of some chemical compositions in atmospheric precipitations over Czechoslovakia

Summary Since the beginning of the I.G.Y. collections of precipitation for chemical analysis have been made at 22 sample stations distributed all over the territory of Czechoslovakia at different heights above sea level. Analyses are carried out in the laboratories of the Geophysical Institute, Department of Physics of the Air, Hradec Králové. This preliminary report deals with the results of analyses during which the content of chloride ions was determined independently by the polarographic and the microtitration technique, while the content of nitrate ions was established polarographically. Distribution of concentrations of chlorides over the territory of Czechoslovakia represents a roughly homogeneous distribution of concentrations varying in a half year average from 0.6 mg/l to 6.6 mg/l. Generally higher concentrations can befound in mountain stations in the neighbourhood of industrial centres. In the winter months the values are higher than in the summer months in most of the stations. This is commonly due to a higher content of chlorides in solid precipitation as can be seen from the enclosed chart. A correlation between the concentration of chlorides and the intensity of the precipitation is not always clearly visible. Distribution of nitrates does not correspond with the character of the iso-lines of chlorides. Average concentrations range from 0.2 mg/l to 1.5 mg/l. The highest values were not found in the precipitations collected in the mountain stations. This would suggest a different distribution of chemical components of chlorides and nitrates in the lower levels of the troposphere which is clearly illustrated by the established concentrations in the region of High Tatra where the precipitations are collected in two neighbouring stations the height difference of which reaches nearly 2,000 m.     

Stable isotopes of atmospheric water vapour and precipitation in the northeast Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau

Stable water isotopes (δ¹⁸O and δ²H) are an important source signature for understanding the hydrological cycle and altered climate regimes. However, the mechanisms underlying atmospheric water vapour isotopes in the northeast Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau of central Asia remain poorly understood. This study initially investigated water vapour isotopic composition and its controls during the premonsoon and monsoon seasons. Isotopic compositions of water vapour and precipitation exhibited high variability across seasons, with the most negative average δ¹⁸O values of precipitation and the most positive δ¹⁸O values of water vapour found during the premonsoon periods. Temperature effect was significant during the premonsoon period but not the monsoon period. Both a higher slope and intercept of the local meteoric water line were found during the monsoon period as compared with in the premonsoon period, suggesting that raindrops have been experienced a greater kinetic fractionation process such as reevaporation below the cloud during the premonsoon periods. The δ²H and δ¹⁸O signatures in atmospheric water vapour tended to be depleted with the occurrence of precipitation events especially during the monsoon period and probably as a result of rainout processes. The monthly average contribution of evaporation from the lake to local precipitation was 35.2%. High d‐excess values of water vapour were influenced by the high proportion of local moisture mixing, as indicated by the gradually increasing relative humidity along westerly and Asian monsoon trajectories. The daily observation (observed ε) showed deviations from the equilibrium fractionation factors (calculated ε), implying that raindrops experienced substantial evaporative enrichment during their descent. The average fraction of raindrops reevaporation was estimated to be 16.4± 12.9%. These findings provide useful insights for understanding the interaction between water vapour and precipitation, moisture sources, and help in reconstructing the paleoclimate in the alpine regions.     

The electrolytical conductivity of precipitation water as an aid to the chemical analysis

Summary The possibility of the use of measurements of the electrolytical conductivity of precipitation water as an aid to the chemical analysis has been examined. The measured conductivity of rain-water and of water obtained by melting snow and rime was of the order of magnitude of that for more or less good distilled water, apart from some exceptions. Considerable variations of the conductivity of rain-water continuously measured during rainfalls were observed. The relation between the conductivity and the chemical composition of the precipitation water was discussed by using the data of the Scandinavian precipitation-chemistry project. The importance of pH measurements was also shown by this consideration.

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Zusammenfassung Die Möglichkeit, aus der Messung der elektrolytischen Leitfähigkeit von Niederschlagswasser einen Beitrag zu der chemischen Analyse zu finden, wurde untersucht. Die gemessene Leitfähigkeit des Regenwassers und des Wassers von geschmolzenem Schnee und Frost war mit einigen Ausnahmen von der Grössenordnung des mehr oder weniger gut destillierten Wassers. Merkliche Variationen der Leitfähigkeit des Regenwassers wurden beobachtet bei kontinuierlichen Messungen während der Regenfälle. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Leitfähigkeit und der chemischen Zusammensetzung des Niederschlagswassers ist diskutiert unter Benutzung der Daten des Skandinavischen Dienstes für Niederschlagschemie. Auf die Bedeutung der pH Messungen in diesem Zusammenhang wurde hingewiesen.

     

Regionalization of precipitation characteristics in the Canadian Prairie Provinces using large-scale atmospheric covariates and geophysical attributes

Observed data at most stations are often inadequate to obtain reliable estimates of many hydro-meteorological variables that not only define water availability across a region but also the vulnerability of social infrastructure to climatic extremes. To overcome this, data from neighboring sites with similar statistical characteristics are often pooled. The pooling process is based on partitioning of a larger region into smaller sub-regions with homogeneous features of interest. The established approaches rely heavily on statistics computed from observed precipitation data rather than the covariates that play a significant role in modulating the regional and local climate patterns at various temporal and spatial scales. In this study, a new approach for identifying homogeneous regions for regionalization of precipitation characteristics is proposed for the Canadian Prairie Provinces. This approach incorporates information about large-scale atmospheric covariates, teleconnection indices and geographical site attributes that impact spatial patterns of precipitation in order to delineate homogeneous precipitation regions through combined use of multivariate approaches—principal component analysis, canonical correlation analysis and fuzzy C-means clustering. Results of the analyses suggest that the study area can be partitioned into five homogeneous regions. These partitions are validated independently for homogeneity using statistics computed from monthly and seasonal precipitation totals, and seasonal extremes from a network of observation stations. Furthermore, based on the identified regions, precipitation magnitude-frequency relationships of warm and cold season single- and multi-day precipitation extremes, developed through regional frequency analysis, are mapped spatially. Such estimates are important for numerous water resources related activities.     

One river,two streams: chemical and chromium isotopic features of the Neglinka River (Karelia,northwest Russia)

The physico-chemical and hydrochemical characteristics of run-off of the Neglinka River Basin (northwest Russia) monitored for a year are different for the upstream and downstream sections. The river known hydrologically as the Neglinka, consists hydrochemically of two different streams: one represented by the upstream part of the basin, and the other one by the downstream. The upstream water is characterized by low mineralization (water hardness 0.08–0.43 mmol L^?1) and low δ⁵³Cr values (+0.30 to +0.42‰), whereas the lower part is characterized by high mineralization (water hardness 0.37–3.46 mmol L^?1) and high δ⁵³Cr values (+0.92 to +1.73‰). The difference in chemical composition of the upstream and downstream waters could be due to the underground discharge input. Aqueous chromium (Cr) mobilized from weathering profiles may have been reduced from soluble Cr(VI) to insoluble Cr(III) during the riverine transportation. Partial removal of Cr from the water balance resulted in a decrease in Cr concentration and an increase in δ⁵³Cr values.     

Stable isotopic compositions and controlling factors of precipitation and atmospheric vapour in the headwaters of the Shule River

Stable isotopic compositions of precipitation (δ¹⁸O_p, δ²H_p and d-excess_p) and atmospheric vapour (δ¹⁸O_v, δ²H_v and d-excess_v) with high spatial–temporal resolution are crucial in revealing hydrologic cycle. Based on the variation characteristics of δ¹⁸O_p/δ¹⁸O_v, δ²H_p/δ²H_v and d-excess_p/d-excess_v in the headwaters of the Shule River (HSR) on hourly and daily scales from June to September 2018, this study analysed the relationships between δ¹⁸O_p/δ²H_p and δ¹⁸O_v/δ²H_v combined with the equilibrium fractionation model, as well as δ¹⁸O_p/δ¹⁸O_v and meteorological factors. The slopes of local meteoric water line (LMWL) and the δ²H_v-δ¹⁸O_v fitting equation were similar (7.96 and 7.94) with both intercepts exceeding 10, reflecting the great contribution of recycling moisture. The values of δ¹⁸O_v/δ²H_v were lower than δ¹⁸O_p/δ²H_p but with consistent variation patterns throughout the period. The equilibrium simulation results suggested that precipitation and atmospheric vapour almost approached isotopic equilibrium state, especially during monsoon intrusion period. Affected by monsoon intrusion, the slopes and intercepts of the LMWLs and the δ²H_v-δ¹⁸O_v fitting equations were smaller than those during non-monsoon period and d-excess and δ¹⁸O were negatively correlated. Relative humidity had significant negative correlations with δ¹⁸O_p and δ¹⁸O_v in the whole period, however, the positive correlations between δ¹⁸O_p/δ¹⁸O_v and temperature were observed during non-monsoon and monsoon intrusion period, respectively. Our results demonstrated that precipitation and atmospheric vapour isotopic compositions exhibited consistency under the influence of diverse moisture sources, while more complex relationships were found between δ¹⁸O_p/δ¹⁸O_v and meteorological factors. This research provided evidence for using the isotopic compositions of atmospheric vapour to indicate moisture sources, and can improve understanding of the water cycle and eco-hydrological process from the perspective of the interaction between water and gas phases of the inland river basin in northwest China.     

华北降水年代际变化特征及相关的海气异常型

利用近50年华北地区26个站逐月降水观测资料和全球大气海洋分析资料,分析了华北降水的年代际变化特征及其和全球海气系统年代际变化的关系.对华北降水距平指数变化分析表明,近50年来华北降水具有减少的总体趋势,叠加在该趋势之上的是年代际变化,其中1965年和1980年发生了两次跃变,使得20世纪80年代干旱尤为严重.在对华北地区降水年代际变化特征分析的基础上,揭示了与华北降水年代际异常相伴随的大气环流和上层海洋热力异常型.结果表明,华北降水年代际异常与太平洋上层海洋热力状况异常有显著关系,主要表现为太平洋年代际振荡（PDO）与华北降水异常的相关.在年代际时间尺度上,华北干旱与上层海洋热力及大气环流异常的配置关系如下：当华北地区干旱时,则热带中东太平洋海温偏高,北太平洋中部海温偏低,即太平洋上主要表现为PDO暖位相,全球大部分地区（包括华北地区）气温偏高,青藏高原地区气温偏低,日本北部及东西伯利亚气压异常偏低,华北及其以南大片地区气压偏高,华北地区由异常西北风控制,不利于水汽向华北地区输送.     

Climatic factors controlling chemical and isotopic characteristics of precipitation in Syria

The chemical and isotopic composition of monthly composite rain samples collected at 13 meteoric stations in Syria during two hydrological cycles from 1991 to 1993 have been measured. The chemical analysis of the samples revealed at a number of stations pollution due to industry and sand storms. The temporal and spatial variation of the isotopic composition has been found to be comparable with one of the neighbouring countries such as Jordan and others. The average weighted oxygen‐18 and deuterium values are − 7·5 and − 39·11‰, respectively, and the deuterium excess is 21‰ . The individual isotope values can be divided into two groups. One group is represented by winter precipitation and fits closely the Mediterranean Meteorological Water Line (MMWL). Thus, for winter precipitation, condensation of Mediterranean water vapour appears to be the dominating isotope fractionation process. The other group represents spring precipitation and is spread along an evaporation line below the MMWL, thus indicating the influence of sub‐cloud evaporation. The d‐excess has been found to be lower in the north of Syria (19·9‰ at Tartous, 18·1‰ at Jarablous) than in the south of the country (23·4‰ at Sweida, 24·1‰ at Izra) where Mediterranean air mass dominates. The d‐excess of precipitation in neighbouring countries is also close to the average value of the eastern Mediterranean basin of 22‰ , e.g. for Jordan the value is 23‰ , which signifies that Mediterranean water vapour is, for all these countries, the dominant source of precipitation. The tritium content of precipitation was found to increase with distance from the coast (5·3 TU at coastal station Tartous, 8·8 TU at continental station Palmyra). Low tritium content and high d‐excess at coastal stations clearly indicate a Mediterranean air moisture source. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

III: Methods of correcting for systematic errors in atmospheric precipitation measurements in Czechoslovakia

The methods of correcting for systematic errors in precipitation measurements using the Czechoslovak gauge METRA 886 are presented. This gauge has an orifice area of 500 cm² and is elevated 1 m above the ground. The wetting correction amounts to 0.1–0.2 mm per measurement. The evaporation correction ranges from 3 per cent in frost-free periods to 10 per cent in frost periods. The wind-induced correction amounts to 5 per cent for rain and 45 per cent for snow. The total sum of corrections on average 10–15 per cent per year in lower localities.