Damage characteristics and influence factors of mountain tunnels under strong earthquakes

A total of 81 mountain tunnels that were damaged in 10 strong earthquakes are studied. They are classified into six typical damage characteristics: lining cracks, shear failure of lining, tunnel collapse caused by slope failure, portal cracking, leaking, and deformation of sidewall/invert damage. Further study and discussion are carried out on influencing factors for mountain tunnels, including seismic parameters, structural information, and rock conditions. Suggestions are also made regarding seismic resistance and reduction.     

A Review of Seismic Damage of Mountain Tunnels and Probable Failure Mechanisms

Severe cases of damages of mountain tunnels following 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Japan), 1999 Chi-Chi (Taiwan), 2004 Mid-Niigata Prefecture (Japan) and 2008 Wenchuan (China) earthquakes have challenged the traditional belief of tunnel structures being seldom damaged in seismic events. These experiences are a reminder that seismic behaviour of mountain tunnels must be further studied in detail. Such investigations assume greater significance as more number of tunnels are being planned to be constructed to meet the infrastructural needs of mountainous regions all around the world. In this paper, seismic damages of mountain tunnels have been reviewed. Prominent failure patterns have been identified based on the case histories of damages. Damages in the form of cracking of tunnel lining, portal cracking, landslide induced failures, uplift of bottom pavement, failures of sidewalls, shearing failure of tunnel liner and spalling of concrete have been majorly observed. Based on the damage patterns and earthquake data, main factors leading to instabilities have been discussed. Probable failure mechanisms of mountain tunnels under seismic loading conditions have been explained. Seismic analyses of a circular lined tunnel in blocky rock mass have been carried out through discrete element based approach. The significant role of different seismic parameters like frequency, peak ground acceleration has been identified. Moreover, effect of tunnel depth on the seismic response of tunnels has been investigated. It is believed that the present study will help in advancing the present state of understanding with regard to the behavior of tunnels under seismic conditions.     

穿越黏滑断层分段接头隧道模型试验研究

数次大地震震害调查表明,隧道穿越断层处是受地震破坏较为严重的区域。为此,基于地震动能量的传播与释放特征,建立了一种穿越断层隧道结构抗减震的设计理念,并提出了一种穿越断层隧道节段接头形式。以跨断层龙溪隧道为依托,采用振动台模型试验研究了单一错动方式与断层错动-震动综合加载方式下带有接头的衬砌结构响应。研究结果证明：强震作用下,地震波对穿越断层隧道的影响是不可忽略的,断层错动-震动综合加载方式是合理的;新型接头能够自身适应性变形协调减轻隧道结构震害,节段间接头的设置改变了隧道的变形形态,提高隧道整体抗震能力;同时减小了衬砌的环向破坏,消弱了节段间地震力的传递,实现了衬砌震害的局部化。由于接头的设置,上盘隧道结构震害集中在距断层1.8倍洞径的范围内,下盘处隧道衬砌震害集中在距断层1.2倍洞径范围内;上盘的衬砌震害主要是由错动-震动联合作用造成的,而下盘衬砌震害主要受地震动的影响。     

Near-field and far-field simulation of accelerograms of Sikkim earthquake of September 18, 2011 using modified semi-empirical approach

The semi-empirical approach for modeling of strong ground motion given by Midorikawa (Tectonophysics 218:287?C295, 1993) has been modified in the present paper for component wise simulation of strong ground motion. The modified approach uses seismic moment in place of attenuation relation for scaling of acceleration envelope. Various strong motion properties like directivity effect and dependence of peak ground acceleration with respect to surface projection of source model have been studied in detail in the present work. Recently, Sikkim earthquake of magnitude 6.9 (M _w ) that occurred on September 18, 2011 has been recorded at various near-field and far-field strong motion stations. The modified semi-empirical technique has been used to confirm the location and parameters of rupture responsible for this earthquake. Strong motion record obtained from the iterative modeling of the rupture plane has been compared with available strong motion records from near as well as far-field stations in terms of root mean square error between observed and simulated records. Several possibilities of nucleation point, rupture velocity, and dip of rupture plane have been considered in the present work and records have been simulated at near-field stations. Final selection of model parameters is based on root mean square error of waveform comparison. Final model confirms southward propagating rupture. Simulations at three near-field and twelve far-field stations have been made using final model. Comparison of simulated and observed record has been made in terms of peak ground acceleration and response spectra at 5?% damping. Comparison of simulated and observed record suggests that the method is capable of simulating record which bears realistic appearance in terms of shape and strong motion parameters. Present work shows that this technique gives records which matches in a wide frequency range for Sikkim earthquake and that too from simple and easily accessible parameters of the rupture plane.     

地铁交叉隧道近场强地震反应特性的三维精细化非线性有限元分析

基于ABAQUS软件研发的显式有限元并行计算集群平台,建立地铁双层交叉隧道结构的三维精细化有限元分析模型,研究了近场强地震动作用下地铁双层交叉隧道的三维非线性地震反应特性,并与浅埋/深埋单层隧道的地震反应特性进行了比较,结果表明：双层隧道的相互作用效应对上、下层隧道顶、底部之间的相对水平位移差具有放大作用;对上、下层隧道的地震应力反应有减小作用;双层隧道上、下层左侧的地震应力反应大于右侧的地震应力反应,隧道拱肩和拱腰处的应力反应明显大于其他部位,拱肩为隧道结构的最危险部位;双层隧道下层顶、底部的峰值加速度反应大于上层顶、底部的峰值加速度反应;双层隧道相互作用效应对上、下层隧道地震反应的影响与双层隧道的交叉形式和基岩输入的近场强地震动特性有关。     

Selection and quantification of near-fault velocity pulses owing to source directivity

Design ground motions are typically governed by large earthquakes at close distances, but the increasing number of near-field recordings manifest the large variability in near-source ground-motion amplitudes which result in significant differences in the building response. In the near-field, this variability arises mainly from source-directivity effects, which generate strong near-fault velocity pulses. We investigate the effect of source complexity on the generation of velocity pulses using a geometrical approach to quantify directivity at near-fault sites based on kinematic rupture models. We propose selection algorithms that can be implemented as search strategies for directivity-related strong ground motion records which may serve as ground motion selection tools in large databases for structural analysis and liquefaction studies. We find that the existence of directivity pulses is strongly related to slip heterogeneity on the fault plane, i.e. that the location and size of asperities (large slip areas) determine directivity pulse generation. In this context we quantify several pulse properties, testing a variety of approaches, and develop predictive relationships between a number of source parameters and pulse properties. We find strong dependence of pulse period on total area of asperities, as well as on a geometrical directivity parameter. The empirical observations on velocity pulse generation determined by the proposed selection procedure are compared with the predictions using the geometrical directivity model. The results are important for determining the probability of observing a pulse at a site as a function of magnitude, distance, and slip heterogeneity on the fault plane.     

Characteristics of seismic disasters and aseismic measures of tunnels in Wenchuan earthquake

Over the past few years, accompanied by big and frequent earthquakes, more attention was paid to the tunnel earthquake resistance. To reduce tunnel seismic damage and explore the reasonable aseismic measures, the tunnel earthquake disaster investigation was employed to analyze and summarize the tunnel seismic damage on the basis of Wenchuan earthquake. Fifty-two tunnels near the epicenter of Sichuan Province were investigated: Only 7 tunnels did not show structure damage, 6 tunnels suffered the most serious damage, and the rest appeared damage to various extents. It indicates that most serious seismic damage happens to fault fracture zone, followed by entrance and common section of the tunnel. Additionally, the results display that the typical seismic damage of tunnels is lining cracking, collapsing, dislocation, construction joints cracking, and uplifting of invert, and usually lining cracking and collapsing account for a larger proportion. Therefore, the tunnel aseismic design should emphasize the fault fracture zone and tunnel entrance. Tunnel design should adopt the composite lining structure with shock absorber and whole chain alternative grouting to prevent the lining cracking and collapsing in the seismic fortification zone.     

Modeling of strong motion generation areas of the 2011 Tohoku,Japan earthquake using modified semi-empirical technique

Modification in the semi-empirical technique for the simulation of strong ground motion has been introduced to incorporate the strong motion generation areas (SMGA) in the modeled rupture plane. Strong motion generation areas identified within the rupture plane of the Tohoku earthquake of March 11, 2011 (M _w = 9.0), have been modeled using this modified technique. Two different source models having four and five SMGAs, respectively, are considered for modeling purpose. Strong motion records using modified semi-empirical technique have been simulated at two near-field stations located at epicentral distance of 137 and 140 km, respectively, using two different source models. Comparison of the observed and simulated acceleration waveforms is made in terms of root mean square error (RMSE) at both stations. Minimum root mean square error of the waveform comparison has been obtained at both the stations for source model having five SMGAs. Simulations from same rupture model have been made at other four stations lying at epicentral distance between 154 and 249 km. Comparison of observed and simulated records has been made in terms of RMSE in acceleration records, velocity records and response spectra at each six station. Simulations have been made at six other stations to obtain distribution of peak ground acceleration and peak ground velocity with hypocentral distance. Peak ground acceleration and velocity from simulated and observed records are compared at twelve stations surrounding the source of Tohoku earthquake. Comparison of waveforms and parameters extracted from observed and simulated strong motion records confirms the efficacy of the developed modified technique to model earthquake characterized by SMGAs.     

Controlled Blasting for Removal of Concrete Plugs in Draft Tube Tunnels at Sardar Sarovar Project

During construction of the Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) Hydro Electric Project in India, an unprecedented flood entered the power house cavern through draft tube tunnels and caused damage to underground structures. After this incident, these draft tubes were plugged with concrete/reinforced concrete to prevent future flooding. After heavy gates were erected at the exit end of the draft tube tunnels, these plugs had to be removed by drilling and blasting without causing any damage to the concrete lining and the ribs erected in the tunnels. Controlled blasting was designed and executed successfully for removal of the plugs in the same manner as for tunnel blasting. This paper describes the details of concrete plugs, details of drilling and blasting adopted, and some interesting observations in respect of drilling and blasting in the concrete plugs. A seismic method based on the measurement of P-wave velocity in the concrete lining before and after blasting was used to quantify the changes (damage) to concrete lining.     

A numerical Round Robin on tunnels under seismic actions

Although the seismic behaviour of shallow circular tunnels in soft ground is generally safer than aboveground structures, some tunnels were recently damaged during earthquakes. In some cases, damage was associated with strong ground shaking and site amplification, which increased the stress level in the tunnel lining. Pseudo-static and simplified dynamic analyses enable to assess transient changes in internal forces during shaking. Nevertheless, experimental evidences of permanent changes in internal loads in the tunnel lining would suggest that a full dynamic analysis including plastic soil behaviour should be performed when modelling the dynamic interaction between the tunnel and the ground. While sophisticated numerical methods can be used to predict seismic internal forces on tunnel structures during earthquakes, the accuracy of their predictions should be validated against field measurements, but the latter are seldom available. A series of centrifuge tests were therefore carried out at the University of Cambridge (UK) on tunnel models in sand, in the framework of a research project funded by the Italian Civil Protection Department. A numerical Round Robin on Tunnel Tests was later promoted among some research groups to predict the observed behaviour by means of numerical modelling. In this paper, the main results of five selected numerical predictions are summarized and compared with the experimental results.     

基于静力推覆试验的山岭隧道衬砌-地层相互作用机制研究

随着我国交通强国建设向西部丘陵重山地区推进,地震作用下山岭隧道衬砌与地层的相互作用机制愈发受到关注。以常规二车道公路隧道(V级围岩段)为原型,开展山岭隧道静力推覆模型试验,重点分析地层位移、地层应变、围岩压力随推覆距离的变化规律,探讨了衬砌-地层相互作用机制。试验结果表明：衬砌-地层相互作用可分为挤密、倾覆、裹挟3个阶段。倾覆阶段地层以起拱线为支点环向绕流,裹挟阶段地层带动衬砌发生整体位移。起拱附近线地层以径向挤压为主,形成挤压变形区,拱肩附近地层则以环向挤压为主,形成滑移变形区。左右两侧围岩压力的响应规律恰好相反,即右侧挤压区的围岩压力较左侧大,而右侧滑移区的围岩压力较左侧小。研究成果可为基于反应位移法的山岭隧道抗震计算提供试验依据与技术支撑。     

Seismic performance evaluation of dam-reservoir-foundation systems to near-fault ground motions

Ground motion records obtained in recent major strong earthquakes have provided evidence that ground motions recorded near the near-fault regions differ in many cases from those observed further away from the seismic source. As the forward directivity and fling effect characteristics of the near-fault ground motions, they have the potential to cause more considerable damage to structures during an earthquake. Therefore, understanding the influence of near-fault ground motions on the performance of structures is critical to mitigate damage and perform effective response. This paper presents results of a study aimed at evaluating the effects of near-fault and far-fault ground motions on seismic performance of concrete gravity dams including dam-reservoir-foundation interaction. Koyna gravity dam is selected as a numerical application. Four different near-fault ground motion records with an apparent velocity pulse are used in the analyses. The earthquake ground motions recorded at the same site from other events that the epicenter far away from the site are employed as the far-fault ground motions. The seismic performance evaluation method based on the demand-capacity ratio, the cumulative overstress duration and the spatial extent of overstressed regions is presented. The concrete damaged plasticity model including the strain hardening or softening behavior is employed in nonlinear analyses. Nonlinear seismic damage analyses of the selected concrete dam subjected to both near-fault and far-fault ground motions are performed. The results obtained from the analyses show the effects of near-fault ground motions on seismic performance of concrete gravity dams and demonstrate the importance of considering the near-fault ground excitations.     

A Multi-Parameter Correlation for Predicting the Seismic Displacement of an Earth Dam or Embankment

Predictive displacement-based methods provide a useful index of the seismic performance of earth dams and embankments and can be used in preliminary assessments of these structures. In practice, simplified Newmark-type sliding block methods are commonly used for this purpose. Using a database of 122 previously published case histories of permanent deformations of earth dams and embankments, the performance of six simplified sliding block models was examined. The results show that all six simplified methods underpredict seismic displacement for many of the embankment and earth dam cases that were examined, sometimes by a significant amount. An empirical correlation was developed by performing linear multiple regression analysis utilizing multiple slope and ground motion input parameters. This approach is believed to more properly reflect strong ground motion characteristics than the use of a single ground motion parameter such as the peak ground acceleration, the approach that has been previously employed in other correlations of this type. After exploring numerous functional forms, the final resulting seismic displacement correlation that was proposed was determined to be a function of the critical acceleration, the critical acceleration ratio, the slope height, the peak ground acceleration, the peak ground velocity, the spectral acceleration, and the predominant period of earthquake shaking. The proposed empirical equation yields better correlation with the case history database than does other existing empirical correlations or simplified sliding block models.     

Numerical Analyses of the Influence of Blast-Induced Damaged Rock Around Shallow Tunnels in Brittle Rock

Most of the railway tunnels in Sweden are shallow-seated (<20 m of rock cover) and are located in hard brittle rock masses. The majority of these tunnels are excavated by drilling and blasting, which, consequently, result in the development of a blast-induced damaged zone around the tunnel boundary. Theoretically, the presence of this zone, with its reduced strength and stiffness, will affect the overall performance of the tunnel, as well as its construction and maintenance. The Swedish Railroad Administration, therefore, uses a set of guidelines based on peak particle velocity models and perimeter blasting to regulate the extent of damage due to blasting. However, the real effects of the damage caused by blasting around a shallow tunnel and their criticality to the overall performance of the tunnel are yet to be quantified and, therefore, remain the subject of research and investigation. This paper presents a numerical parametric study of blast-induced damage in rock. By varying the strength and stiffness of the blast-induced damaged zone and other relevant parameters, the near-field rock mass response was evaluated in terms of the effects on induced boundary stresses and ground deformation. The continuum method of numerical analysis was used. The input parameters, particularly those relating to strength and stiffness, were estimated using a systematic approach related to the fact that, at shallow depths, the stress and geologic conditions may be highly anisotropic. Due to the lack of data on the post-failure characteristics of the rock mass, the traditional Mohr–Coulomb yield criterion was assumed and used. The results clearly indicate that, as expected, the presence of the blast-induced damage zone does affect the behaviour of the boundary stresses and ground deformation. Potential failure types occurring around the tunnel boundary and their mechanisms have also been identified.     

Tectonic stress,seismicity, and seismic hazard in the southeastern Carpathians

Intermediate-depth earthquakes in the Vrancea region occur in response to stress generation due to descending lithosphere beneath the southeastern Carpathians. In this article, tectonic stress and seismicity are analyzed in the region on the basis of a vast body of observations. We show a correlation between the location of intermediate-depth earthquakes and the predicted localization of maximum shear stress in the lithosphere. A probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) for the region is presented in terms of various ground motion parameters on the utilization of Fourier amplitude spectra used in engineering practice and risk assessment (peak ground acceleration, response spectra amplitude, and seismic intensity). We review the PSHA carried out in the region, and present new PSHA results for the eastern and southern parts of Romania. Our seismic hazard assessment is based on the information about the features of earthquake ground motion excitation, seismic wave propagation (attenuation), and site effect in the region. Spectral models and characteristics of site-response on earthquake ground motions are obtained from the regional ground motion data including several hundred records of small and large earthquakes. Results of the probabilistic seismic hazard assessment are consistent with the features of observed earthquake effects in the southeastern Carpathians and show that geological factors play an important part in the distribution of the earthquake ground motion parameters.     

Effect of Blast-Induced Vibration from New Railway Tunnel on Existing Adjacent Railway Tunnel in Xinjiang, China

The vibrations of existing service tunnels induced by blast-excavation of adjacent tunnels have attracted much attention from both academics and engineers during recent decades in China. The blasting vibration velocity (BVV) is the most widely used controlling index for in situ monitoring and safety assessment of existing lining structures. Although numerous in situ tests and simulations had been carried out to investigate blast-induced vibrations of existing tunnels due to excavation of new tunnels (mostly by bench excavation method), research on the overall dynamical response of existing service tunnels in terms of not only BVV but also stress/strain seemed limited for new tunnels excavated by the full-section blasting method. In this paper, the impacts of blast-induced vibrations from a new tunnel on an existing railway tunnel in Xinjiang, China were comprehensively investigated by using laboratory tests, in situ monitoring and numerical simulations. The measured data from laboratory tests and in situ monitoring were used to determine the parameters needed for numerical simulations, and were compared with the calculated results. Based on the results from in situ monitoring and numerical simulations, which were consistent with each other, the original blasting design and corresponding parameters were adjusted to reduce the maximum BVV, which proved to be effective and safe. The effect of both the static stress before blasting vibrations and the dynamic stress induced by blasting on the total stresses in the existing tunnel lining is also discussed. The methods and related results presented could be applied in projects with similar ground and distance between old and new tunnels if the new tunnel is to be excavated by the full-section blasting method.     

Effect of surface wave inversion non-uniqueness on 1D seismic ground response analysis

Surface wave methods are increasingly being used for geotechnical site characterization. The methodology is based on the dispersive characteristic of Rayleigh waves in vertically heterogeneous medium. Experimental dispersion curve is inverted to obtain one-dimensional shear-wave velocity profile by inverse problem solution. Uncertainty associated with this surface wave inversion has drawn much attention. Inverse problem solution can provide different equivalent shear-wave velocity profiles, which may lead to different seismic site response analysis. In this study, a neighborhood algorithm has been used for inversion of dispersion curve to get a set of equivalent shear-wave velocity profiles. These equivalent velocity profiles are then used for 1D ground response analysis for different input motion record of the same earthquake at different epicentral distances. Results show significant variation in amplification spectrum in terms of maximum amplification as well as peak frequency. The extent of this uncertainty largely depends on the characteristics of the ground motion records at different epicentral distances. A linear variation is observed between mean coefficients of variation of amplification spectrum and epicentral distance of ground motion records. A gradual increase in mean value of peak frequency and peak amplification with the epicentral distance is also observed.     

特大断面隧道地震动力特性的振动台试验研究

以福州市二环路金鸡山隧道扩建工程为背景,设计制作了特大断面隧道的1/30缩尺模型,并在福州大学土木工程实验中心的双向地震模拟振动台上,完成了21种工况下的模拟地震动试验。对试验数据进行傅立叶分析,发现浅埋条件下特大断面隧道的存在,显著地改变了原场地的动力特性;第一卓越频率主要体现原场地的动力特性,而第二卓越频率主要体现衬砌结构的动力特性。对试验数据进行频响分析,发现地震波自下而上传播至衬砌结构顶部以后,其第二卓越频率附近的频率成分发生了显著增益;其最大增益频率大致等于第二卓越频率。分析特大断面隧道动力特性与输入地震动幅值的关系,发现经历大振幅地震波激励后,衬砌结构上裂缝发展较为显著,其整体刚度明显降低,从而导致第二卓越频率和最大增益频率出现较为明显的下降。基于上述研究成果,进一步提出了特大断面隧道抗震设防的工程建议。     

Dynamic analysis of ground with rigorous use of strain dependency and its application to seismic microzonation of alluvial plane

Seismic microzonation is one of the most important measures to mitigate earthquake hazards in urban areas. Because the ground motion varies significantly with the subsurface geology, it is needed for microzonation to account as much as possible for the local soil conditions. Noteworthy is that nonlinear deformation properties of soil play essential roles in amplification of strong ground motion. It is desired furthermore to focus on the expected damage extent in addition to the calculated maximum acceleration and/or velocity. The present study first developed a computer code for one-dimensional response analysis of ground that reasonably takes into account nonlinear dynamic soil properties. Second, correlations between the calculated ground motion and damage extent were obtained by examining seismic damages during the past earthquakes. By combining these two issues, seismic microzonation was carried out, and detailed damage distribution was assessed. The product of this study covers not only the damage caused by ground shaking but also liquefaction problem and lifeline damage.     

某核电取水隧洞洞口段及洞口高边坡抗震稳定分析

针对某核电取水隧洞工程,采用非线性的动力分析方法,用Flac3D建立大型三维有限差分模型,模拟隧洞洞口段在场址时程地震波作用下的地震响应规律,同时通过建立隧洞洞口处回填高边坡的二维有限元模型,进行洞口边坡在地震动作用下的稳定性分析,得出其边坡滑动面位置和动力安全系数时程曲线。通过场址地震波的输入,探讨隧洞洞口及边坡的结构响应特点,得出隧洞洞口衬砌内力随地震波作用的时程变化曲线,绘制隧洞衬砌内力图,同时给出隧洞洞口段高边坡安全系数。分析结果表明,隧洞洞口抗震的薄弱部位位于隧洞拱肩及边墙位置。分析方法及结论对于隧洞的抗震设计具有一定的参考价值。