基于水力压裂实验的龙马溪组页岩各向异性特征研究

水力压裂储层改造技术是页岩气开发的关键技术手段.大量高压流体注入页岩储层会显著改变岩石的纵横波速度、岩石力学参数及其各向异性特征.文章在伪三轴应力加载条件下对龙马溪组页岩开展了差异化的水力压裂岩石物理实验,对比了应力加载方式和水-岩物理化学反应对于页岩纵横波速度和岩石力学参数的影响.实验结果表明,对于干燥页岩样品,各向...     

Continuous TDEM for monitoring shale hydraulic fracturing

Monitoring and delineating the spatial distribution of shale fracturing is fundamentally important to shale gas production. Standard monitoring methods, such as time-lapse seismic, cross-well seismic and micro-seismic methods, are expensive, timeconsuming, and do not show the changes in the formation with time. The resistivities of hydraulic fracturing fluid and reservoir rocks were measured. The results suggest that the injection fluid and consequently the injected reservoir are characterized by very low resistivity and high chargeability. This allows using of the controlled-source electromagnetic method (CSEM) to monitor shale gas hydraulic fracturing. Based on the geoelectrical model which was proposed according to the well-log and seismic data in the test area the change rule of the reacted electrical field was studied to account for the change of shale resistivity, and then the normalized residual resistivity method for time lapse processing was given. The time-domain electromagnetic method (TDEM) was used to continuously monitor the shale gas fracturing at the Fulin shale gas field in southern China. A high-power transmitter and multi-channel transient electromagnetic receiver array were adopted. 9 h time series of Ex component of 224 sites which were laid out on the surface and over three fracturing stages of a horizontal well at 2800 m depth was recorded. After data processing and calculation of the normalized resistivity residuals, the changes in the Ex signal were determined and a dynamic 3D image of the change in resistivity was constructed. This allows modeling the spatial distribution of the fracturing fluid. The model results suggest that TDEM is promising for monitoring hydraulic fracturing of shale.     

页岩气地震勘探中页岩各向异性的地震模拟研究

页岩的强各向异性特征挑战地震波传播数值模拟方法的精度极限, 特别是易引起频散的高频波(>100 Hz)传播的数值模拟.鉴于目前我国页岩气地震勘探主要以常规地震声波资料为主,本文首先介绍了一种VTI介质声波方程的任意偶数阶有限差分数值模拟方法,并讨论其稳定性条件和吸收边界条件.任意偶数阶的差分解可有效提高计算精度,压制数值频散噪声.针对页岩较强的各向异性特征,本文比较了不同模型的声波方程和VTI介质声波方程计算得到的地震响应.数值结果表明,各向异性对地震波的运动学(相位)和动力学(振幅)特性影响作用明显.因此,在页岩气地震勘探资料处理的各个环节必须充分考虑各向异性的影响,采取有别于常规油气勘探的处理流程和技术.     

Preliminary stress measurements in central California using the hydraulic fracturing technique

Use of the hydraulic fracturing technique for determiningin situ stress is reviewed, and stress measurements in wells near the towns of Livermore, San Ardo, and Menlo Park, California are described in detail. In the Livermore well, four measurements at depths between 110 and 155 m indicate that the least principal compressive stress is horizontal and increases from 1.62 to 2.66 MPa. The apparent direction of maximum compression is N 70° E (±40°). At the San Ardo site the least principal stress is that due to the overburden weight. At depths of 240.2 and 270.7 m the minimum and maximum horizontal stresses are estimated to be 11.4 and 22.5 MPa, and 12.0 (±1.1) and 15.8 (±3.3) MPa, respectively. From an impression of the fracture at 240.2 m, the direction of maximum compression appears to be about N 15° E. The rock in the Menlo Park well is too highly fractured to yield a reliable measurement of the horizontal stresses. The data indicate, however, that the least principal stress is vertical (due to the overburden weight) to a depth of 250 m.     

利用全波形匹配方法确定水力压裂诱发地震震源机制

准确确定水力压裂诱发地震的震源机制对于描述裂缝破裂类型以及工区地应力状态十分重要.本文采用全波形匹配的方法确定诱发地震震源机制解,在拟合波形的同时对实际数据P波初动极性和纵横波振幅比也进行匹配,并在此基础上发展了一种基于邻域算法分级优化确定震源机制解的新方法.新方法的优势在于它对解具有更强的约束,并且能够解决现有方法中存在的权值系数选择问题.合成数据测试结果表明新方法能够得到可靠的震源机制解.本文将该方法应用于国内某页岩气田水力压裂诱发地震监测数据,反演结果表明诱发地震的震源类型以走滑破裂为主,表明该地区的最大水平主应力大于垂直主应力.

     

基于交错网格有限差分算法的页岩声波各向异性校正方法研究

页岩具有层理发育的特征, 这会引起强烈的声波各向异性, 导致直井与水平井声波测井数据之间差异明显, 因此在水平井储层参数计算中无法直接应用基于直井的岩石物理解释模型.为了解决这一问题, 本文以页岩波速各向异性实验数据为基础, 引入交错网格有限差分算法, 首先在直井井孔模型中(VTI介质)模拟了声波的发射和接收, 随后通过弹性系数矩阵的Bond变换, 模拟了在井斜角不为0的情况下(TTI介质)井孔中的声场传播, 以任意井斜角与井斜角为0情况下纵波慢度差值相对值为纵坐标, 以相对应的井斜角为横坐标, 建立起了纵波各向异性校正公式.模拟与应用结果表明: 井孔中波形曲线与实轴积分法(RAI)得到的波形曲线一致, 同时利用慢度相似相关算法(STC)得到的地层纵波慢度与给定的实验测量值吻合很好, 在28种地层弹性参数的情况下, 平均相对误差为2.3%;纵波慢度差值相对值与井斜角关系曲线显示, 在井斜角小于30°的条件下, 纵波慢度差值相对值变化较小, 随着井斜角大于30°后, 相对值变化增大, 当井斜角为90°也就是水平井模式下, 纵波慢度差值相对值达到最大.根据纵波各向异性校正公式, 对水平井纵波曲线进行了慢度校正.利用纵波校正前后计算的水平井有效孔隙度与导眼井岩心分析有效孔隙度相对误差分析表明, 纵波校正后计算的有效孔隙度计算精度有了明显的提高, 证明了该方法具有非常好的应用效果, 可用于页岩水平井纵波慢度校正.

     

水力压裂物理实验模拟初探

为了研究水力压裂中岩石的破裂及裂缝延展规律,开展水力压裂实验模拟.采用大型真三轴压裂设备对花岗岩岩样(300 mm×300 mm×300 mm)进行水力压裂,16道检波器接收,在识别的声发射信号上拾取初至走时,Geiger定位结果表明,压裂中声发射事件位置与压裂示踪剂显示相一致,CT扫描制作的数字岩心准确反映实际的破裂...     

龙马溪页岩弹性各向异性与矿物分布之间的关系探讨

岩石弹性各向异性特征是普遍存在的,但导致岩石弹性各向异性的原因复杂且仍然存在一定争议.本研究以龙马溪页岩为例,试图建立页岩弹性各向异性和矿物分布之间关系.研究使用无损超声波探测获取岩石弹性各向异性参数,并使用背散射技术获取岩石矿物分布特征.研究通过引进变异系数来描述矿物或孔裂隙在不同方向的差异性,并通过2个正交方向的变异系数建立微观异质性指标,用于表征微观尺度上矿物或孔裂隙在不同方向的差异程度.微观背散射图像显示,龙马溪组页岩主要由石英和伊利石构成,且这两种矿物和孔裂隙在X和Y面上都有定向排列特征.相应地,它们的变异系数在X面和Y面上均表现出随角度增大而降低的特征;而在Z面,石英、伊利石和孔裂隙变异系数变化不明显,这与Z面上矿物和孔裂隙无明显方向性的特点一致.无损超声波探测结果显示,波速在X和Y面上随角度增加而减小,这与主要矿物和孔裂隙变异系数变化趋势相同;而在Z面,波速变化不大,与主要矿物和孔裂隙变异系数变化不明显的特征一致.以上观测结果说明,宏观波速与矿物的微观变异系数明显相关,暗示岩石弹性各向异性与矿物分布直接相关.

     

一种改进的声发射模板识别流程及其在大尺度页岩水力压裂主被动观测实验中的应用研究

提出一种改进的实验室声发射模板识别流程.该流程联合RMS-AIC算法优化了模板事件的检测效果,将一种改进的绝对离差中位数（观测数据的二分位数与MAD的和）应用于不同时段RMS与互相关序列的动态阈值的设置中,并对声发射模板事件与多通道连续波形数据的互相关叠加方式进行了改进,以避免弱初至延迟量不准确对叠加异常点的影响.我们开展了大尺度龙马溪组页岩水力压裂过程的主动源超声检测与声发射事件联合观测实验,并将该流程应用于主、被动连续观测数据中声发射信号的识别.研究结果表明：利用本文提出的流程检测出1720个声发射信号,数量比声发射模板信号大约多5.54倍.利用更为完备的声发射目录,我们观测到页岩水力压裂过程中的主压裂点大约发生在152 s,且压裂后早期3 s内声发射率呈现出较慢的幂率衰减（p=0.130）,而后以较快速率（p=1.403）衰减至稳定值.此外,我们对多种震相拾取算法的比较、声发射的频-幅分布特征等方面开展了讨论.这一新的声发射识别流程可以有效提高在主、被动联合观测下的声发射识别效果,完备水力压裂过程中声发射的时序分布特征,为页岩气开采及风险评估的实验室研究提供有效支撑.

     

A study of pore geometry effects on anisotropy in hydraulic permeability using the lattice-Boltzmann method

We hypothesize that anisotropy in soil properties arises from pore-scale heterogeneity caused by the alignment of aspherical soil particles. We developed a method to predict the permeability tensor from particle shape and packing structure. Digital geometry maps were created for the pore space in regular cubic and random packs of particles with various aspect ratios using a numerical packing algorithm. The lattice-Boltzmann method was used to simulate saturated flow through these packs, and the effect of particle shape and degree of alignment on the permeability tensor was characterized. Results show that the degree of anisotropy in permeability depends not only upon particle shape and alignment, but also on the three-dimensional structure of the pack. In random packs, more oblate particles and higher degrees of particle alignment lead to reduced permeability perpendicular to the direction of particle alignment compared to the direction parallel to particle alignment.     

水力压裂对速度场及微地震定位的影响

水力压裂是页岩气开发过程中的核心增产技术,微地震则广泛用于压裂分析、水驱前缘监测和储层描述.微地震反演过程中,用于反演的速度模型往往基于测井、地震或标定炮资料构建,忽略了压裂过程中裂缝及孔隙流体压力变化对地层速度的影响.本文首先基于物质守恒、渗流理论和断裂力学模拟三维水力压裂过程,得到地下裂缝发育特征和孔隙压力分布.继而根据Coates-Schoenberg方法和裂缝柔量参数计算裂缝和孔隙压力对速度场的影响,得到压裂过程中的实时速度模型.最后利用三维射线追踪方法正演微地震走时和方位信息,并采用常规微地震定位方法反演震源位置及进行误差分析.数值模拟结果表明,检波器空间分布影响定位精度,常规方法的定位误差随射线路径在压裂带中传播距离增加而变大,且不同压裂阶段的多点反演法与单点极化法精度相当.     

Scenario analysis for assessing the impact of hydraulic fracturing on stream low flows using the SWAT model

Scientists and water users are concerned about the potential impact on water resources, particularly during low-flow periods, of freshwater withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing (fracking). Therefore, the objective of this paper is to assess the potential impact of hydraulic fracturing on water resources in the Muskingum watershed of Eastern Ohio, USA, especially due to the trend of increased withdrawals for hydraulic fracking during drought years. The Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM) was used to generate 30 years of plausible future daily weather series in order to capture the possible dry periods. The data generated were incorporated in the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to examine the level of impact due to fracking at various scales. Analyses showed that water withdrawal due to hydraulic fracking had a noticeable impact, especially during low-flow periods. Clear changes in the 7-day minimum flows were detected among baseline, current and future scenarios when the worst-case scenario was implemented. The headwater streams in the sub-watersheds were highly affected, with significant decrease in 7-day low flows. The flow alteration in hydrologically-based (7Q10, i.e. 7-day 10-year low flow) or biologically-based (4B3 and 1B3) design flows due to hydraulic fracking increased with decrease in the drainage area, indicating that the relative impact may not be as great for higher order streams. Nevertheless, change in the annual mean flow was limited to 10%.     

龙马溪组页岩微观结构、地震岩石物理特征与建模

龙马溪组页岩是目前国内页岩气勘探的主要层位之一. 由于岩石物理实验结果具有区域性, 龙马溪组页岩的岩石特征与其地震弹性性质的响应规律需要开展相关的实验和理论研究工作予以明确. 本研究基于系统的微观结构观察(扫描电镜和CT成像技术)和岩石物理实验来分析龙马溪组页岩样品地震弹性性质的变化规律, 并依据微观结构特征建立相应的地震岩石物理表征模型. 研究结果表明, 石英含量对龙马溪组页岩的孔隙度以及有机碳(TOC)含量具有一定的控制作用, TOC和黄铁矿主要赋存于孔隙中; 岩石骨架组成亦受控于石英或粘土含量, 在石英含量大于40%(对应粘土含量小于30%)时, 以石英、粘土共同作为岩石骨架, 而粘土含量大于30%时, 则以粘土作为岩石的骨架. 因此, 岩石骨架组成矿物、TOC含量、孔隙度共同制约龙马溪组页岩的地震弹性性质, 富有机质储层岩石通常表现出低泊松比、低阻抗和低杨氏模量的特征, 但由于支撑矿物的转换, 某些富有机质页岩亦可表现为高阻抗特征. 粘土矿物的定向排列仍然是造成页岩样品表现出各向异性的主要原因, 各向异性参数与粘土含量具有指数关系. 基于龙马溪组页岩的岩性特征及微观结构特征, 可以利用自洽模型(SCA)、微分等效模量模型(DEM)和Backus平均模型的有效组合较为准确地建立龙马溪组页岩的地震岩石物理模型, 实验结果和测井数据验证了模型的准确性.研究结果可为龙马溪组页岩气储层的测井解释和地震"甜点"预测提供依据.     

页岩气开采水力压裂诱发四川盆地南部2018年12月M L 5.7地震和2019年1月M L 5.3地震

2018年12月16日,四川省兴文县发生了M L5.7地震(北纬28.239°,东经104.922°)。两个多星期以后的2019年1月3日,在其西边8km处发生了M L5.3地震。这两次地震事件是目前为止在长宁页岩气区块发生的最大的、最具破坏性的地震事件,对附近的农舍和建筑物造成了严重的破坏。虽然中国地震局发布这两个地震事件的常规处理得到震源深度都大于5km,但基于广义剪切粘贴法(gCAP)方法的矩心矩张量解,发现震源深度非常浅(M L5.7和M L5.3地震的震源深度分别为3km和1.8km)。此外,这两个地震事件都非常接近水力压裂(HF)井场,周围有很多水力压裂井在地震时正在进行压裂作业。一系列的证据链条表明这些地震是由2.5~3km深度处的水力压裂所诱发。证据包括地震和水力压裂井段之间的时空相关性、地震活动统计特性,以及触发那些现今应力场下产状不利于发生摩擦滑动的断层所需的流体超压力。自2014年开始规模化水力压裂以来,长宁区块至今共观察到11次M L≥4.0地震事件(其中包括3次M L≥5.0地震)。与常规构造地震活动相比,这些地震活动的大森型余震活动非常低。此外,对于触发M W≥3.5地震事件,所需流体超压力为0.3~5.8MPa。水力压裂在致裂区间以外由孔弹性效应产生的应力变化一般远小于1MPa。这些断层大多是未知的,而且在目前的构造应力场作用下,其产状不利于发生滑动破裂,所以流体超压力驱动已存在断层的再活化被认为是诱发这些异常的中强地震的原因。     

龙马溪组页岩数字岩心动态法弹性等效数值建模

数字岩心是计算岩石弹性性质的一类常用方法.龙马溪组页岩具有多矿物构成、复杂微结构和强非均质等特征,常规岩石物理的弹性等效解析建模局限性较大,目前流行的静态数值等效建模方法的精度有限.本文基于高分辨率的页岩数字岩心数据,采用多阈值分割方法将数字岩心分解为黏土、石英、孔隙、TOC、长石类、黄铁矿类等六种矿物类型;利用矿物组分等效模量法计算各类矿物的弹性模量;采用二元函数分水岭方法表征不同压力下的岩石孔隙变形和颗粒接触关系变化;通过取向分布函数（ODF）定量分析矿物颗粒展布造成的各向异性特征.最后基于Biot孔弹方程,采用不分裂卷积完全匹配层（CPML）旋转交错网格有限差分法模拟不同压力下弹性波在数字岩心中的传播.以未加压的数字岩心为参考模型,计算不同压力下弹性波走时的平均时间差,进而估算各压力点的数字岩心等效速度.与该岩心样品的超声实验测量速度比较,动态法数值计算结果略偏高,据此校正数值计算过程中表征岩石微结构及颗粒接触关系随压力变化的二元函数,有效改善动态法弹性等效数值建模精度.

     

低孔隙度泥页岩应力依赖的各向异性裂纹演化特性研究

本文在实验室对所获取的东营地区层理发育的低孔隙度页岩和泥岩的各向异性裂纹演化特性进行了研究, 获得了各向同性条件下泥页岩的力学与超声波响应特性, 分析了应力幅度对于页岩声波速度和各向异性的影响.主要结论包括:(1)泥页岩在循环载荷下存在滞后效应, 表明其经历了去压实或油气产生导致的超压; (2)泥岩和页岩具有不同程度的各向异性, 随着各向同性压力的增高微裂隙逐渐闭合, 样品的各向异性程度减弱; (3)分析了岩石韧度和裂纹损伤参数随压力的变化特征, 相比泥岩, 页岩各向异性程度更高, 随压力变化更明显, 其裂纹导致的附加各向异性更强; (4)分析了各向异性岩石的动态弹性模量特征, 由于软裂隙空间的闭合, 动态弹性模量在低压条件下都随着围压的增加有硬化趋势.     

Computation of elastic properties of 3D digital cores from the Longmaxi shale

The dependence of elastic moduli of shales on the mineralogy and microstructure of shales is important for the prediction of sweet spots and shale gas production. Based on 3D digital images of the microstructure of Longmaxi black shale samples using X-ray CT, we built detailed 3D digital images of cores with porosity properties and mineral contents. Next, we used finite-element (FE) methods to derive the elastic properties of the samples. The FE method can accurately model the shale mineralogy. Particular attention is paid to the derived elastic properties and their dependence on porosity and kerogen. The elastic moduli generally decrease with increasing porosity and kerogen, and there is a critical porosity (0.75) and kerogen content (ca. ≤3%) over which the elastic moduli decrease rapidly and slowly, respectively. The derived elastic moduli of gas- and oil-saturated digital cores differ little probably because of the low porosity (4.5%) of the Longmaxi black shale. Clearly, the numerical experiments demonstrated the feasibility of combining microstructure images of shale samples with elastic moduli calculations to predict shale properties.     

成岩过程对五峰-龙马溪组页岩地震岩石物理特征的影响

五峰-龙马溪组页岩是目前国内页岩气勘探的首选层位,而其地震岩石物理特征是利用地震方法进行"甜点"预测的重要基础之一,但对五峰-龙马溪组页岩地震弹性特征变化规律的研究并未考虑沉积、成岩过程的影响,致使相应的规律性认识缺乏地质意义.在对五峰-龙马溪组页岩样品系统声学测量基础上,分析了页岩样品地震弹性性质的变化规律.利用X射线衍射分析、扫描电镜（SEM）、阴极发光（CL）与能谱分析确定了五峰-龙马溪组页岩在不同沉积环境下的成岩过程,并讨论了成岩过程与地震弹性性质变化规律的因果关系.研究结果表明,页岩中有机质（TOC）受高热演化程度的影响,其密度通常高于1.4 g·cm^-3,并接近于有机碳密度上限1.6 g·cm^-3（石墨密度）.五峰-龙马溪组页岩地震弹性性质变化规律整体受沉积环境控制,沉积环境的差异形成不同的成岩过程,致使地震弹性特征也表现出不同的变化规律.表现在五峰-龙马溪页岩样品动态岩石物理特征主要受岩石结构控制（支撑颗粒弹性性质）,而孔隙度、TOC含量以及孔隙形状则为对地震弹性特征影响的次一级因素.五峰-龙马溪组页岩上段为浅水陆棚相,机械压实与化学压实（硅质胶结）为先后两个过程,造成样品表现出高的速度-孔隙度变化率、高速度比（泊松比）、高各向异性以及低TOC含量的特征.五峰-龙马溪组页岩下段为深水陆棚相,机械压实过程中同时伴有生物成因的硅质胶结,造成岩石样品表现出较高TOC含量与孔隙度、各向异性较弱以及较小的速度-孔隙度变化率.研究结果可为五峰-龙马溪页气储层的测井解释和地震"甜点"预测提供依据.     

Velocity anisotropy and attenuation of shale in under- and overpressured conditions

The seismic velocity and attenuation of fully saturated shales were measured for the first time under overpressured conditions, using the ultrasonic reflection technique. Shale cores from naturally overpressured horizons in the North Sea were tested in the laboratory, at confining and pore pressures relevant to in situ conditions.
A single-frequency tone-burst pulse wave was used to determine the seismic wave velocities and quality factors of the shale samples, with errors less than 0.3% and 0.1 dB/cm, respectively, at a frequency of 0.75 MHz. Sample length changes with varying confining and pore pressure were measured and the pore pressure equilibration time was monitored for each sample.
The anisotropy of the seismic attributes ( V _p, V _s, Q _p and Q _s) was determined over a range of differential pressures from 5 to 60 MPa, with respect to the predominant foliation. The ultrasonic velocity data followed a transversely isotropic pattern depending on the direction of wave propagation with respect to the laminations. The Poisson's ratio was found to rise by 5% as the shale material progressed from a normally pressured to an overpressured state. The quality factor ( Q ) characteristics were interpreted in terms of pore geometry and connectivity as well as the directional permeability of the transversely isotropic shale material. The results were converted to bulk and shear loss modulus defects, and a positive bulk loss was observed for waves propagating perpendicular to the lamination plane even above differential pressures of 20 MPa. This indicates different levels of Biot-flow and squirt-flow attenuation mechanisms acting within the shale structure, depending on the wave propagation and vibration directions.