Formulation and verification of a land surface parameterization for atmospheric models

The need for a well-defined lower boundary condition for atmospheric numerical models is well documented. This paper describes the formulation of a land surface parameterization, which will be used in atmospheric boundary-layer and mesoscale numerical models. The land surface model has three soil layers for the prediction of soil moisture and soil temperature. Model soil properties depend on soil texture and moisture content. A homogeneous distribution of vegetation is also included, so that transpiration may be included, as well as the interception of precipitation by vegetation elements. The simulated vegetation also affects the mean surface albedo and roughness characteristics.First ISLSCP Field Experiment (FIFE) data are used to verify the model. Three cases during the growing season were chosen, each case having different amounts of vegetation cover. Stand alone simulations, where observations of atmospheric and radiation variables are input to the land surface model, were performed. These simulations show that the model is able to reproduce observed surface energy budgets and surface temperatures reasonably well. The RMS differences between modeled and obsered turbulent fluxes of heat and moisture are quite comparable to those reported by more detailed land surface models.     

黄土高原自然植被下垫面陆面过程参数研究

利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站的观测资料,分析了黄土高原自然植被下垫面陆面过程相关物理参数.研究了总体输送系数的不同季节平均日变化和频率分布特征,考察了地表粗糙度的变化趋势以及降水的影响.降水正常年份的总体粗糙度为0.009 m,偏干年份总体粗糙度为0.006 m,月平均粗糙度变化与正常年份相比较为平缓,降水通过增加植被覆盖和生长高度,使地表粗糙度增大.对总体输送系数与粗糙度以及总体理查森数的关系分别进行了讨论,在中性层结下黄土高原地区动力输送作用占主导地位,发现动量总体输送系数和奈曼流动沙丘下垫面很接近,而感热输送系数与戈壁下垫面接近.分析了反照率和太阳高度角以及土壤湿度的关系,并拟合得到以这两个物理量为因子的参数化公式.总体上,黄土高原自然植被下垫面的反照率比敦煌荒漠小,而大于长白山松林下垫面,这与3个地区植被覆盖和土壤质地的不同有关.通过对参数化公式模拟效果的检验,发现低太阳高度角下的反照率对土壤湿度和太阳高度角以外的其他因素敏感,而对应高太阳高度角的反照率受土壤湿度和太阳高度角的控制较强.最后,计算了土壤热传导率和热扩散率等土壤热力参数,相同湿度的热传导率比敦煌荒漠要大,并拟合得到热传导率以土壤湿度为自变量的参数化公式.     

两次暴雨过程模拟对陆面参数化方案的敏感性研究

选取发生在江西和福建境内的两次暴雨个例,利用NCEP再分析资料在对暴雨发生前、后的环境场和物理量场进行诊断和对比分析的基础上,采用中尺度模式WRF V3.3,通过数值模拟探讨了陆面过程对两次暴雨过程的可能影响及其相关的物理过程。结果表明,2012年5月12日江西大暴雨主要受大尺度环流和中尺度天气系统影响,具有范围大、持续时间长等特点,属于大尺度降水为主的暴雨;而2011年8月23日福建暴雨发生在副热带高压控制下的午后,局地下垫面强烈的感热和潜热通量使低层大气不稳定性增强,触发了此次对流性降水为主的暴雨。通过资料诊断分析,可以判断陆面过程对福建暴雨个例的影响程度明显强于江西暴雨个例。通过关闭地表通量试验发现,陆面过程对暴雨模拟十分重要,尤其是对于该个例中对流性降水的发生起到关键性的作用。通过陆面参数化方案的敏感性试验发现,两次暴雨过程对陆面参数化方案均较为敏感。江西暴雨对陆面过程的敏感性主要体现在对流降水的模拟上,而福建暴雨则体现在大尺度降水的模拟方面,即福建暴雨对陆面参数化方案的敏感性强于江西暴雨。敏感性产生机制与降水类型关系紧密,大尺度降水对陆面过程的敏感性主要来源于不同参数化模拟的中高空对流系统的差异,而对流降水的敏感性则与不同参数化模拟的地表通量的差异有关。通过陆面参数的扰动试验进一步发现,相比于地表粗糙度和最小叶孔阻抗,土壤孔隙度和地表反照率则是影响对流降水对陆面过程敏感的关键因子,这在本质上与地表通量是否受到扰动有关。地表通量较风场而言,受扰动引起变化的空间范围广、时间响应快,变化具有明显规律性。所得结果可为深入理解陆面过程影响暴雨等天气过程和改进数值模式对暴雨的模拟能力提供一定的参考。     

陆面过程模式的敏感性试验

本文对文献[1]中提出的陆面过程模式(简称LPM)进行了下列敏感性试验:1)植被的覆盖度,2)土壤湿润程度,3)不同植被类型(半荒漠、草原、混交林、森林和作物地五种)和4)不同气候带(半干旱、半湿润和湿润带三类)。试验结果与相应的观测和气候状况进行了比较,表明了模式对上述参数或参数组变化的敏感程度。模拟的不同植被和气候带的温湿状况和能量平衡关系是合理的。因此可以用于气候模拟的研究。     

陆面模拟中植被辐射传输参数化方案研究

在冠层二流辐射传输模式基础上新发展了一个描述太阳短波辐射在植被中传输的冠层四流辐射传输模式.冠层四流辐射传输模式是在大气辐射传输理论的基础上得到一组描述短波辐射在植被中传输过程的冠层辐射传输基本方程,引进大气中求解辐射传输方程的四流近似解法,并求得冠层四流辐射传输方程的解析解.方程中各项参量能够反映叶子或冠层特殊的几何和光学特征.冠层向上、向下辐射通量取决于冠层散射相函数、叶子在入射光方向投影面积、单个叶子反射率和透射率、叶面积指数以及直射光入射太阳高度角等.四流模式计算叶子水平倾角时对太阳短波辐射的反照率,与二流模式结果比较可以验证模式的理论推导和建模都是正确的:计算结果的比较,表明四流模式在水平叶角分布时计算的冠层反照率与二流模式结果一致,同时直射光从任何太阳高度角入射的冠层反照率结果也一致,从而证明发展的冠层四流辐射传输模式是成功的.模拟试验中将两种模型同时耦合到同一个陆面过程模式中进行比较试验,结果表明,冠层四流辐射传输模式能够得到更精确的植被反照率,从而使得陆面模式计算的地表吸收的净太阳辐射通量更接近于观测值.     

陆面过程中冠层四流辐射传输模式的模拟性能检验

利用实际观测资料检验新发展的植被冠层四流辐射传输模式的模拟性能.将浙江大学田间观测数据用于模式试验,其结果表明:在可见光波段,因叶片散射率值较小,四流模式和二流模式模拟结果差别不大,模拟的冠层反照率都接近观测值.这表明在可见光波段,二流模式已经能够较好模拟芯层反照率,四流模式能够提高的精度范围有限;在近红外波段,因叶片散射率值较大,两个模式模拟结果差别较明显,四流模式模拟的冠层反照率相对二流模式的模拟结果更接近观测值.利用第2次雪模式比较计划SNOWMIP资料和改进的10层陆面模式BATS进行耦合试验,将四流模式以及二流模式均耦合到该陆面模式中,其目的是为考察四流模式对陆面模式模拟地表反射太刚短波辐射通量的影响.耦合后得到的结果与SNOWMIP中加拿大BERMS草地站和森林站的观测资料进行了对比.对比结果表明,采用网流模式、二流模式、BATS原辐射传输模式后,耦合四流模式的陆面模式模拟地表反射太阳短波辐射通量最接近观测值.说明采用四流模式能够改善陆面模式对地表反射太阳短波辐射通啦的模拟.     

基于MODIS数据地表温度反演劈窗算法的比较研究

选取QIN和SOB两种代表性劈窗算法对辽宁地区地表温度进行反演,并分析二者的精度和误差分布。结果表明：QIN和SOB算法反演的地表温度（TS）与地面气象台站准同步观测的气温和地温的线性拟合显著,SOB算法线性拟合更好;从误差分布直方图上看,两种算法的反演结果与地温更接近,SOB算法与同步气温和地温在±2 ℃之间的误差比例略高于QIN算法;在野外开展与卫星遥感空间尺度一致的地表温度观测试验,QIN和SOB算法与实测值的平均绝对误差均为1.5 ℃;与NASA官网发布的地表温度产品对比发现,QIN和SOB算法的平均绝对误差分别为1.75 ℃、1.70 ℃;因此QIN、SOB算法在辽宁地区均适用,SOB算法误差更小。     

A numerical simulation of the surface water budget during HAPEX-MOBILHY

A simple land surface parameterization scheme previously validated at the daily time scale is studied for monthly periods using the HAPEX-MOBILHY data set. For a set of six locations, the scheme reproduces with good accuracy two components of the surface water budget (evaporation and soil moisture depletion) when the observed rainfall rate at the ground surface is specified. For two sites where the superficial soil moisture content has been measured, the model provides a reasonable evolution for this quantity. The validation has been completed by examining the screen-level temperature and relative humidity. The agreement with observations is fair, except when the local properties of the site strongly differ from those of the surroundings.     

陆面模型Noah-MP的不同参数化方案在沙漠区域的适用性研究

为研究陆面模型Noah-MP在沙漠下垫面的最优参数化方案组合,本文利用中国气象局塔克拉玛干沙漠气象野外科学试验基地观测数据,根据沙漠环境特征进行不同参数化方案组合的三组模拟实验,利用观测数据对10 cm土壤温湿度、感热、潜热通量模拟值对比分析得出最优组合。研究表明:第三组对10 cm的土壤温度模拟效果最好,主要原因是Chen97感热交换系数和全网格二流近似(gap=0)辐射传输方案比较符合沙漠的环境特征。三组试验对土壤湿度模拟效果差,其主要原因是沙漠的土壤信息未能体现在模式中,第二组选择CLM方案对土壤类型影响蒸发方面有一定考虑,其模拟结果相对较好。对于感热通量,第一、二组模拟值在波峰存在高估,尤其是第二组模拟值在降水后出现了明显低估情况,第三组模拟效果最好,主要得益于选择了感热交换系数Chen97方案,能够较为真实的刻画Ch变化特征。潜热通量在四个特征量中模拟效果最差,主要原因是沙漠土壤水分极低,观测降水和实际进入土壤的水量有差异,另外没有植被和植物根系,模式无法准确计算土壤蒸发和植被蒸散。根据统计分析和泰勒图可知,第三组能够更好地还原沙漠区域的陆面过程。     

Geostatistical improvements of evapotranspiration spatial information using satellite land surface and weather stations data

The objective of the present study was to use the simple cokriging methodology to characterize the spatial variability of Penman–Monteith reference evapotranspiration and Thornthwaite potential evapotranspiration methods based on Moderate Resolution Imaging Spetroradiometer (MODIS) global evapotranspiration products and high-resolution surfaces of WordClim temperature and precipitation data. The climatic element data referred to 39 National Institute of Meteorology climatic stations located in Minas Gerais state, Brazil and surrounding states. The use of geostatistics and simple cokriging technique enabled the characterization of the spatial variability of the evapotranspiration providing uncertainty information on the spatial prediction pattern. Evapotranspiration and precipitation surfaces were implemented for the climatic classification in Minas Gerais. Multivariate geostatistical determined improvements of evapotranspiration spatial information. The regions in the south of Minas Gerais derived from the moisture index estimated with the MODIS evapotranspiration (2000–2010), presented divergence of humid conditions when compared to the moisture index derived from the simple kriged and cokriged evapotranspiration (1961–1990), indicating climate change in this region. There was stronger pattern of crossed covariance between evapotranspiration and precipitation rather than temperature, indicating that trends in precipitation could be one of the main external drivers of the evapotranspiration in Minas Gerais state, Brazil.     

Testing a GCM land surface scheme against catchment-scale runoff data

A GCM land surface scheme was used, in off-line mode, to simulate the runoff, latent and sensible heat fluxes for two distinct Australian catchments using observed atmospheric forcing. The tropical Jardine River catchment is 2500 km² and has an annual rainfall of 1700 mm y^–1 while the Canning River catchment is 540 km², has a Mediterranean climate (annual rainfall of 800 mm y^–1) and is ephemeral for half the year. It was found that the standard version of a land surface scheme developed for a GCM, and initialised as for incorporation into a GCM, simulated similar latent and sensible heat fluxes compared to a basin-scale hydrological model (MODHYDROLOG) which was calibrated for each catchment. However, the standard version of the land surface scheme grossly overestimated the observed peak runoff in the wet Jardine River catchment at the expense of runoff later in the season. Increasing the soil water storage permitted the land surface scheme to simulate observed runoff quite well, but led to a different simulation of latent and sensible heat compared to MODHYDROLOG. It is concluded that this 2-layer land surface scheme was unable to simulate both catchments realistically. The land surface scheme was then extended to a three-layer model. In terms of runoff, the resulting control simulations with soil depths chosen as for the GCM were better than the best simulations obtained with the two-layer model. The three-layer model simulated similar latent and sensible heat for both catchments compared to MODHYDROLOG. Unfortunately, for the ephemeral Canning River catchment, the land surface scheme was unable to time the observed runoff peak correctly. A tentative conclusion would be that this GCM land surface scheme may be able to simulate the present day state of some larger and wetter catchments but not catchments with peaky hydrographs and zero flows for part of the year. This conclusion requires examination with a range of GCM land surface schemes against a range of catchments. Received: 9 June 1995 / Accepted: 4 April 1996     

不同边界层方案对一次华北暴雨数值模拟的敏感性研究

以2010年8月17—19日华北地区的暴雨事件为研究对象,采用中尺度数值模式WRF,通过8个数值实验测试暴雨事件模拟结果对不同边界层方案的敏感性。结果表明,采用不同边界层方案的模拟结果存在明显差异。分辨率为12 km时,7个边界层方案实验均模拟出类似观测的四处较强降水,但模拟得到的降水强度和强降水中心位置与实况有所差异,NOPBL实验模拟的雨带收缩,降水相对其他模拟实验较少且更为集中。分辨率为4 km时,采用边界层方案的7个实验均可见小尺度降水结构,模拟出较多虚假降水中心,而在NOPBL试验中降水的小尺度结构不明显。检验表明:分辨率为12 km时,MYJ试验的TS评分、相关系数和误差分析等整体表现最优,分辨率为4 km时,Bou Lac试验整体表现最优。与NOPBL试验相比,加入MYJ边界层方案后,模拟的水汽输送增加、上升运动及涡散度绝对值增大。     

气象卫星遥感地表温度推算近地表气温方法研究

气温是各种植物生理、水文、气象、环境等模式或模型中的一个非常重要的近地表气象参数.多年来气温数据以离散的常规气象站点观测为主,连续分布的格点气温数据则以站点资料插值而得到,分辨率低,无法反映地形等下垫面因素对局地气温的影响,在农业气候区划等研究中具有一定的局限性.随着卫星遥感地表温度算法的日趋成熟,为探讨卫星遥感地表温度数据在气温观测中的可能性和可行性,利用全中国2340个站点1998 2007年的逐旬平均最高气温数据,以及相应时段的NOAA/AVHRR旬最高地表温度数据,以线性回归及拟合模型为主,通过考虑植被指数、土地覆盖类型、季节、风速、气压、降水等各类影响因子,建立了旬最高地表温度与旬平均最高气温间的推算模型,并利用未参与建模的2002-2003年的常规气象站点气温数据,同时与推算气温和插值气温结果进行对比分析.结果表明,利用卫星遥感地表温度数据推算的旬值气温数据可取得较高的精度,尤其在地形复杂地区以及站点稀疏地区精度明显高于插值气温结果.     

基于自动站资料的WRF-EnSRF陆面同化系统的效果检验及应用

基于集合平方根滤波方法(En SRF)同化方法和NOAH陆面模式的WRF-En SRF陆面同化系统,同化了江苏省70个自动站资料进行试验,研究加入不同的同化资料(地表温度、10 cm土壤温度、20 cm土壤温度)及初始扰动强度的大小对陆面数据同化系统性能的影响,以及对不同区域(降水大值区和降水小值区)的分析场进行效果对比,并且检验了同化系统在一次典型的梅雨锋暴雨的同化效果,证明了这个系统的有效性和可行性。对于资料选取试验,比较全场平均的同化时刻分析场模拟观测相对真实观测的均方根误差可以得到:同化地表温度资料并且初始扰动强度1 K的时候同化效果最理想。对于选定的降水大值区和降水小值区来讲,降水大值区的土壤温度和土壤湿度分析场更加接近于真实场。运用于一次梅雨锋暴雨的同化实验,对于最后一个同化时次的分析场作为背景场做集合预报,最终证明预报结果是有效的。土壤温度、土壤湿度、地表温度和近地面风场的预报结果都较用NCEP再分析资料直接做预报作为控制试验的结果有不同程度的改进。这说明该系统应用于实际同化中的性能较为良好,可以应用于实际土壤湿度与温度的预报。     

Modeling land surface phenology in a mixed temperate forest using MODIS measurements of leaf area index and land surface temperature

The development of satellite-derived vegetation indices and metrics has enabled researchers to monitor land surface phenology (LSP). While the use of satellite data to monitor LSP is prevalent, there has been minimal effort to model LSP in temperate climates using satellite observations of the land surface. Satellite-derived LSP models are beneficial for studying past and future changes in phenology and related ecosystem processes (e.g., water, energy, and carbon fluxes). The purpose of this study was to model LSP during the spring in a mixed temperate forest using satellite-derived measurements of leaf area index (LAI) and land surface temperature (LST). As part of the model validation process, the use of LST as a proxy for air temperature to model LSP was also investigated. The results indicate that LST derived from the MODIS Terra sensor at 10:30?a.m. (local solar time) can be used to develop a LSP model that predicts the full profile of LAI from winter dormancy to maturity and the date when LAI reaches half of the annual maximum (LAI_50%) with relatively low error. In addition, the modeled LAI values closely tracked in situ observations of the phenological development of the dominant deciduous tree species located in the study area where the model was developed. A comparison of LST and daily maximum air temperature at two levels above the ground surface revealed distinct differences and nonlinearities in the relationship between these two variables. However, accumulated growing degree-days calculated from each of these variables were similar because the largest differences between LST and daily maximum air temperature occurred prior to the beginning of heat accumulation. Consequently, the model predictions of LAI_50% derived from the use of LST and daily maximum air temperature were similar. When the developed model was applied in two other mixed forests, the errors were larger due to substantial interannual variability in the relationship between LAI and heat accumulation and systematic differences in this relationship between sites. Although the model cannot be successfully applied in these other mixed forests, the ability of the model to capture a consistent relationship between satellite estimates of LAI and LST in the study area where it was developed demonstrates that satellite observations of the land surface can be used in certain locations to create LSP phenology models. When validated, the models can be used to examine past and future changes in phenology and related ecosystem processes.