New Zealand’s quota management system: the first ten years

This paper has two aims. First, New Zealand’s quota management system is analysed using a simple analytical economic model. Second, the paper describes how the system has evolved in response to pressures since implementation. The quota management system has provided a remarkably robust platform for addressing fisheries management problems during its first ten years of operation. It also provided the government with an instrument for settling Maori fishing claims. In 1996, the unsubsidised New Zealand fishing industry exported most of its harvest to highly competitive international markets. The paper concludes with a discussion of contemporary challenges.     

Tides—a modern perspective

Progress in tidal science has been rapid in recent years. The advent of precision altimetry has enabled, for the very first time in tidal history, an accurate measurement of tides in most of the global oceans. This has revolutionized our knowledge of tides and tidal processes. Combined with high‐resolution numerical models of tides (and other recent advances in astronomy and geodesy), this increased knowledge is providing valuable assistance in effecting closure on many outstanding problems in this three‐centuries‐old science. For example, we now know the dissipation rate of lunar tides to be 3.17 TW to within 2%. However, there do remain some outstanding issues. While we know the rate at which tidal energy is being dissipated in the global oceans, there is still considerable uncertainty as to the mechanisms, locations, and magnitudes of various tidal energy sinks. Imminent advances in shallow‐water barotropic and deep‐water baroclinic tides hold the prospect of a better understanding of these also. Improved knowledge of oceanic tides and high‐precision satellite measurements of tides are enabling better assessment of some matters of geophysical interest, such as the anelasticity and the length‐of‐day fluctuations of the Earth's mantle. It has been possible to map long‐period lunar tides more accurately and derive their contribution to the Earth's rotation rate fluctuations and its anelasticity at these frequencies. We discuss various aspects related to tides, including tidal dissipation and its consequences, as well as several other topics such as tidal energetics, internal tides, and long‐period tides, where considerable progress has been made in the last decade. Both oceanographic and geophysical implications are mentioned.     

Review of indicators in fisheries management – a development perspective

A review of indicators for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management is presented, focusing on multispecies fisheries and limited resources for assessments and implementation, as often is the case in developing countries. Emphasizing the need to link indicators to management objectives, indicators from the literature are grouped into four categories, relating to the immediate fisheries resource base (single-species and multispecies indicators) and the wider ecosystem (habitat structure and ecosystem functioning). The usefulness of these indicators is assessed along three dimensions of acceptability among stakeholders, observability, and relation to fisheries management using a traffic light approach. The top ranking indicators are highlighted as a generally good start for any particular fishery management case. It is, however, argued that, even with similar management objectives, indicators need to be specific to both ecosystems and the institutional set-up if they are to be effective for management, and that indicators may consequently differ considerably between individual management applications.     

From adoption to implementation? An academic perspective on Sustainable Fisheries Management in a developing country

Despite the fact that Sustainable Fisheries Management (SFM) has long been proposed internationally, it remains controversial. Practical and successful applications are scarce, especially in developing countries with a recent history of massive overfishing, such as Mexico. Although SFM has been adopted at the highest level of the Mexican legal framework during the last two decades, its successful implementation still faces a series of complex challenges. At present, important changes in the Mexican political regime are at a breaking point, motivating the academic discussion about the national implications of adopting SFM approaches. Through the analysis of a series of deep interviews of key actors, combined with published material, the article illustrates how the fast-track adoption of SFM approaches has fared in a national fisheries context, the current situation being largely dysfunctional with regard to the challenges of SFM. A complicated mixture between unbeaten management and academic vestiges caused the present circumstances of an enhanced but limited fisheries system. The article proposes academic initiatives required to improve the implementation of SFM in Mexico based on an enhanced understanding of domestic historic conditions and challenges.     

Succession of a wharf‐pile fauna at Lyttelton,New Zealand

A 31/2‐year succession of wharf‐pile fauna is described from communities of different known ages on piles at Lyttelton, New Zealand. Intertidal regions of the piles were initially colonised by the barnacle Elminius modestus; these populations developed to form a subclimax community which was subsequently replaced by a climax community of the mussel Modiolus neozelanicus after 21/2 years. The stability of this climax is discussed. In the infratidal region initial settlement of the tubicolous amphipod Corophium acherusicum and an erect bryozoan Bugula sp. was followed after 5 months by colonisation by solitary tunicates. These tunicates became dominant only after H years and provided numerous niches for superficial foulers, crevice dwellers, and motile organisms. This succession is compared and contrasted with a terrestrial succession of plants. Four vertical zones were recognised: supralittoral zone, midlittoral zone, in‐fralittoral fringe, and infralittoral zone. Species additional to those recorded by Skerman (1958) are appended.     

Mangrove planning and management in New Zealand and South East Australia – A reflection on approaches

The mangrove Avicennia marina var. australasica occurs on the temperate coastlines of New Zealand's north island and New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia in South East Australia. Mangroves are increasing in area with seaward expansion in New Zealand and landward expansion in temperate Australia. Their expansion has been viewed as unnatural. With pressure from residential and coastal development, planning and management authorities in both countries are being exerted to allow for the removal and destruction of mangroves, partly for protecting and re-instating other impacted habitats such as saltmarsh and mudflats and partly to maintain recreational and amenity values of coastal communities. Estuary management planning is a useful tool that can integrate and balance policy directions for mangroves and other estuarine habitats in a strategic manner. Mangroves should not be considered as ‘bad’ in isolation but viewed as part of the mosaic of tidal habitats important for estuary function and health.     

Fisheries management in Central Maluku,Indonesia, 1997–98

Interviews with government staff responsible for fisheries management in Maluku, Indonesia in 1997–98 revealed problems in capacity, and an emphasis on economic development rather than management. The traditional institutions which persisted in some villages to regulate the access and withdrawal rights over key inshore species, were also disjunct from government departments. The period following December 1998 is marked by political upheaval, legislative change that (in theory) decentralized governance over inshore waters, and violent unrest centered in Maluku. All these make the data collected in 1997–98 of historical interest. The state of fisheries management in Maluku remains undefined, pending further legislative reform and peace that will allow governments and communities to negotiate and implement new institutional arrangements.     

Plankton of lake Ototoa,a sand‐dune lake in Northern New Zealand

The seasonal cycles of abundance of the phytoplankton and zooplankton in Lake Ototoa, Northland, at 36° 31 S, 174° 14 E, are described. Concentrations of chlorophyll a were low (range 0.04–4.61 mg.m^‐3; mean 0.97 mg.m^‐3), and highest values were in winter. Phytoplankton densities were also low; an oligo‐trophic diatom‐desmid assemblage associated with Botryococcus, Dinobryon, and Svhaerocyslis was found.

The zooplankton was dominated by the calanoid copepod Calamoecia lucasi whose numbers remained fairly constant throughout the year, and the only other copepod found was the cyclopoid Mesocyclops leuckarti which was present in very low numbers. Bosmina meridionalis was the only limnetic cladoceran and was most abundant during autumn and spring. A number of rotifer species were also common.     

Life‐history studies on New Zealand Brachyura

Abbreviated or direct development is described in Pilumnus novaezealandiae Filhol, 1886 and P. lumpinus Bennett, 1964 from New Zealand. Embryonic development is separated into Nauplius, Metanauplius and embryonic zoeal stages. The ontogenetic position of the pre‐zoeal cuticle suggests that it represents the Metanauplius stage, and the absence of plumose pre‐zoeal aesthaetes in P. novaezealandiae implies relationship with the more recently evolved brachyuran families. The significance of the pre‐zoeal cuticle in brachyuran phylogeny is discussed. In P. noveazealandiae four embryonic zoeal phases are recognised as approximately equivalent to the four Zoea larval stages occurring in the majority of xanthid Brachyura. It was not possible to distinguish similar phases in embryonic zoeal development of P. lumpinus because of advanced anachronism which is normally associated with abbreviated development. The appearance of relatively advanced structures very early in ontogeny is attributed to the absence of the need for successive developmental stages to be adapted for free life. In the embryonic Zoea, carapace spines considered to assist with flotation and orientation, and natatory setae, are together reduced or absent in abbreviated development where such structures would be of no use within the egg.

In P. novaezealandiae and P. lumpinus increase in egg size during incubation is probably due to absorption of water by the embryo during development, and eclosion is initiated by rupture of the chorion through internal pressure thus created. Larvae of P. noveazealandiae hatch at a Megalopa larval stage and are retained beneath the pleon of the female crab. Those of P. lumpinus hatch as advanced, much‐modified, and non‐natatory Zoeae which are not retained by the parent. Simultaneous moulting of the pre‐zoeal and zoeal skins occurs in both species.

The Megalopa larva and first five juvenile crab stages of P. novaezealandiae are described and compared with equivalent stages of P. vestitus from Australia recorded by Hale (1931). The Megalopa larva of P. lumpinus is described. P. lumpinus is considered as the least evolved of the three species of Pilumnus possessing abbreviated development, while P. vestitus suggests a second stage, and the third and most advanced stage is shown by P. novaezealandiae Ecology of these three species is correlated with abbreviated development. Retention of potentially free‐swimming Megalopa larvae by the parent explains gregariousness among juvenile crabs and adults of both P. novaezealandiae and P. vestitus

It is probable that abbreviated development has evolved among marine and freshwater Brachyura as a response to habitat requirements of the adult crabs. Partial or complete abbreviation of the planktonic phase and retention of larvae would assist with retaining the stock within a restricted locality or ecological niche. Abbreviated development among Brachyura therefore has little phylogenetic significance.     

New Zealand lakes research, 1967–91

Research on New Zealand lakes over the past 25 years has focused mainly on eutrophication, measures of water quality, patterns, processes and production in plankton communities, and the spread and growth of submerged adventive macrophytes. Compared with most northern temperate lakes many New Zealand lakes show: low levels of inorganic nitrogen (N) and frequent N‐limitation of phyto‐plankton growth; diffuse, rather than point source, nutrient inflows; a great diversity of optical properties; unusual and often variable timing of plankton growth (attributed to the pervasive influence of New Zealand's oceanic climate); low productivity and biomass of zooplankton, which appear to be limited by food rather than predators; and sensitivity to invasion by adventive macrophytes. Notable research develop‐ments include improved methods of measuring nutrients, empirical predictive models that relate indices of eutrophication to nutrient loading, and significant advancements in methods of quantifying and measuring water colour and clarity.     

Life‐history studies on New Zealand Brachyura

A brief account is given of the systematics and distribution of Heterozius rotundifrons A. Milne Edwards, Ozius truncatus H. Milne Edwards, and Heteropanope (Pilumnopeus) serratijrons (Kinahan). Keys are given for the separation of Zoea larvae of New Zealand xanthid Brachyura and to the Megalopa larvae of Heterozius rotundifrons and Ozius truncatus

Notes are given on the seasonal breeding cycle of Heterozius rotundifrons, and the pre‐Zoea larva, two Zoea larval stages, and Megalopa larva reared in the laboratory are described. Larval characters of H. rotundifrons are specialised and do not support its recently suggested classification in the family Atelecyclidae. The larvae show no relationships with those of the Cancridae or of the Corystidae, and affinities with described larvae of the Xanthidae or even the Brachyrhyncha are obscure. Larval development is incompletely abbreviated possibly to reduce dispersal in response to restricted intertidal habitat requirements of the adult crabs.

The pre‐Zoea larva, four Zoea larval stages, and the Megalopa larva of Ozius truncatus reared in the laboratory are described. A key to the Zoea larval stages is given. Larvae of this species are distinct both at the generic and specific levels, but are generally similar to those known of xanthid crabs. It is difficult to relate the genus Ozius to other xanthid genera on the basis of larval characters alone.

The pre‐Zoea larva and stage one Zoea larva of Heteropanope (Pilumnopeus) serratifrons are described. There are probably four Zoea larval stages in the development of this species. Zoea larval characters suggest that in the family Xanthidae, Heteropanope and Pilumnopeus should be separated from other genera in the subfamily Pilumninae with which they are currently classified.     

Unravelling the dynamics of a multi-gear fleet – Inputs for fisheries assessment and management under the Common Fisheries Policy

Effective species management requires good knowledge on vessel dynamics, either at a stock basis or through the establishment of multiannual management plans as advisable under the new European Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). Achieving such knowledge on Portuguese multi-gear fisheries is challenging given the large number of species caught and the different management measures applied to potential target species. The latter ranges from no input or output controls to output controls based on individual vessel quotas (IVQ). To provide accurate regional knowledge to the CFP, the dynamics of vessels involved in the trammel net fishery targeting anglerfish (Lophius spp.) was characterised based on onboard sampling data and logbook reports. The selected vessels were very dynamic, and were found to target other species such as hake (Merluccius merluccius), John Dory (Zeus faber) and octopus (Octopus vulgaris). Anglerfish landing trends can be explained by changes in abundance, quota availability and shifts/changes in fishing effort. Overall, the dynamics of these vessels varied with area of exploitation, IVQ value and anglerfish total allowable catch (TAC). These results show the influence of different management systems in the dynamics of vessels and the advantage of an IVQ management system, where fishers can spatially and temporally allocate effort. Results also highlight a fishing effort shift towards unregulated species in face of IVQ or TAC restrictions.     

Structure of a mudflat diatom community in the Avon‐Heathcote Estuary,New Zealand

Parameters of community structure (species composition and relative abundance, number of taxa, diversity, evenness, and cell density) were measured for a mudflat diatom community in the Avon‐Heathcote estuary, New Zealand. Fifty three diatom species were identified: 25 taxa (species and varieties) are new New Zealand records. The Shannon‐Wiener information index (H') was 3.46, indicating high diversity. Evenness (J') ranged from 0.57–0.67. The association between the biomass of the pulmonate gastropod, Amphibola crenata, and benthic diatom community structure was studied using large open enclosures (4.0 m²) to manipulate snail biomass. Community structure was compared at 0, 5 (natural biomass), and 10 g A. crenata dry weight per m. A similarity index (SIMI=0.88–0.95), as well as H’ and J’ indicated close similarity between the diatom assemblages within all enclosures, but number of taxa increased from 33 to 49 with increasing snail biomass. Cell densities were significantly lower at high snail biomass (6088 valves per mm²) compared to enclosures with no snails (10 110 valves per mm ). A. crenata had a higher ratio of diatom fragments to whole diatom valves in its faeces (2.42) than in its crop (0.55), indicating that it is capable of fragmenting diatoms.     

Coastal management challenges from a community perspective: The problem of ‘stealth privatization’ in a Canadian fishery

Intertidal clam fisheries seem ideal candidates for the devolution of management authority from government to local stakeholders. In St. Mary's Bay, Nova Scotia, a private firm recently applied for a 10-year renewal of a large (1,627 ha) lease for quahog clam aquaculture. This case study examines the challenges of implementing community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) in rural fisheries within a broad integrated coastal management (ICM) institutional environment that favours corporate stakeholders. The challenges facing clam harvesters in rural Digby Neck, Nova Scotia arise from poor communication and coordination within government and between government and communities, as well as higher-level policy conflicts. The most important challenge arises from ‘stealth privatization’ of clam beaches. A single firm was granted rights of first refusal to depurate all clams harvested from closed (polluted) beaches in the region, resulting in the de facto privatization of all (polluted and unpolluted) clam beaches. Experiences in other parts of Canada suggest there may be community-based governance approaches that avoid the pitfalls associated with corporate management of clam beaches. New thinking is required about how to moderate the ‘privatization paradigm’ so prevalent within senior levels of government in order to ensure environmental and social sustainability in rural fishing communities.     

Ocean temperature climate off North‐East New Zealand

The ocean temperature field off the north‐east coast of New Zealand is studied to quantify the annual cycle and reveal the intra‐ and inter‐annual variability. The data used are repeat expendable bathythermograph (XBT) sections between Auckland and either Suva or Honolulu which have been collected quarterly since 1986. These sections give temperature measurements between the surface and 800 m and Auckland and 30°S from 1986 to August 1999. The mean and annual cycle are compared with those from the NOAA World Ocean Atlas (WOA98). The results are similar; however WOA98 lacks the horizontal resolution to fully discern the East Auckland Current and North Cape Eddy, while the XBT analysis lacks the temporal resolution to discern higher frequency intra‐annual signals. The temperature variability in the mixed layer is dominated by the annual cycle, which accounts for 80–90% of the variance. The amplitude of the annual cycle diminishes rapidly with depth, from 2.8°C at the surface, to c. 0.1°C at 180 m. The phase of the annual cycle is retarded with depth, with peak temperatures occurring in February at the surface and in June/July at 180 m. Removing the annual cycle from the time series reveals the more subtle inter‐ and intra‐annual variability. This variability is of the order of 1°C in the upper 50 m, decreasing to 0.3°C at 400–500 m. The surface layer was cold between 1991 and 1994 (c. 0.7°C cooler than average), and 0.7°C warmer than average in 1999. The deeper ocean shows a different signal, being up to 0.3°C cooler in 1990–92, 0.3°C warmer in 1998, and c. 0.2°C warmer than average in 1999. The inter‐annual mixed layer variability is highly correlated with the Southern Oscillation Index and also with inter‐annual terrestrial air temperature and wind measurements from northern New Zealand. In contrast, at higher intra‐annual frequencies, the mixed layer variability is not correlated with air and wind measurements. At these higher frequencies, the air temperature is better correlated with the sea surface temperature (SST) than with the bulk mixed layer temperature.     

New Zealand oceans governance: Calming turbulent waters?

In March 2000, New Zealand began the development of a national oceans policy. The oceans policy has weathered a number of challenges, most notably the dispute between Maori and the Crown over title to coastal land and water. This dispute stalled the development process in mid 2003 until work recommenced in November 2005. This paper analyses developments in New Zealand oceans governance, identifying the interaction between state, community and market as important influences that can help explain complexities of policy development, lack of sectoral integration and a change in policy direction.     

Foraminiferal evidence for a pre‐middle eocene age of the chatham rise,New Zealand

Several sediment samples collected from the crest and slope of the Chatham Rise, and from the Chatham Islands, to the east of New Zealand, contain Globigerina linaperta‐Globorotalia increbescens foraminiferal faunas of upper Middle and middle Upper Eocene age. The foraminiferal faunas from the Chatham Islands, which include Rectuvigerina, Latibolivina, Dyocibicides, Discorbinella, Patellina, and Wadella, indicate shallow‐water palaeodepths, probably equivalent to the outer shelf (50–150 m). A faunal assemblage from near the crest of the rise is likewise indicative of shallow water, although distinct differences in the benthonic foraminiferal ifauna suggest slightly deeper‐water biofacies than the Eocene of the Chatham Islands. In contrast, a fauna of similar age from 1,100 m on the southern slope of the Chatham Rise contains a much deeper‐water benthonic foraminiferal assemblage including Osangularia, Vulvulina, Stilostomella, hispidocostate Uvigerina, and smooth‐shelled Bulimina, indicative of lower middle bathyal depths (1,500–2,500 m).

The nature and distribution of the assemblages, together with previous work by Norris (1964) and Cullen (1965), indicates that the Chatham Rise has been a significant structure since at least the Middle Eocene, with some uplift occurring since then.     

Invasion of a New Zealand freshwater stream by glass‐eels of two Anguilla spp.

Recruitment of glass‐eels into freshwater is in two distinct phases characterised by behavioural differences: an initial invasion from the sea, and an upstream migration. Catches made at night in the Makara Stream, Wellington (41° 13'S, 174° 43’ E) indicate that the invasion by both New Zealand species commences in July, with that of the long‐finned eel Anguilla dieffenbachii Gray finishing by November, and that of the short‐finned eel A. ausiralis schmidlii Phillipps by December.

The length of post‐metamorphic sea‐life influences both morphology and behaviour of the glass‐eels. Differences in this period of sea‐life between early and late season glass‐eels explain the initial avoidance but later attraction of fresh water to the glass‐eels. Responses to fresh water also explain the preference for early season glass‐eels to invade on the flood tide and late season glass‐eels on the ebb tide. Neither the lunar cycle nor rainfall appear to be significant influences on invasion periodicity.     

Physical characterisation and a biologically focused classification of “seamounts” in the New Zealand region

The physical, biological, and oceano‐graphic characteristics of seamounts of the New Zealand region of the South Pacific Ocean are poorly known. The aim of this study was to present a synopsis of the physical characteristics of seamounts within the region, and to present a preliminary classification using biologically meaningful variables. Data for up to 16 environmental variables were collated and used to describe the distribution and characteristics of the c. 800 known seamounts in the New Zealand region. Seamounts span a wide range of sizes, depths, elevation, geological associations and origins, and occur over the latitudinal range of the region, lying in different water masses of varying productivity, and both near shore and off shore. As such, it was difficult to generally describe New Zealand seamounts, as there is no “typical” feature. Thirteen environmental variables were included in a multivariate cluster analysis to identify 12 seamount similarity groupings, for a subset of over half the known seamounts. The groupings generally displayed an appreciable geographic distribution throughout the region, and were largely characterised by a combination of four variables (depth at peak, depth at base, elevation, and distance from continental shelf). In the future, the findings of the present study can be tested to determine the validity and usefulness of the approach for directing future biodiversity research and informing management of seamount habitat.