The process of developing a management system for subsistence fisheries in South Africa: recognizing and formalizing a marginalized fishing sector in South Africa

Subsistence fishers were first recognized as a formal fishing sector in South Africa when new fishing legislation, aimed at redressing past inequalities, was enacted in 1998. Little information was available about these fishers, their activities, and the resources upon which they rely. Recognizing the imperative to gain an understanding of the fishers and to consult broadly, the national agency responsible for the management of marine living resources, Marine and Coastal Management (MCM) of the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, appointed a Subsistence Fisheries Task Group (SFTG) in December 1998 to provide advice on the implementation of appropriate management systems for subsistence fisheries. This paper describes the process followed to formulate recommendations that were presented by the SFTG to MCM in February 2000. The activities of the SFTG fell into two categories: research aimed at identifying subsistence fishers and gaining an understanding of their activities and socio-economic profiles; and consultation aimed at ensuring that the needs and aspirations of fishers and the experience of local managers were incorporated. Research included both field-based studies and synthesis of information about comparative fisheries elsewhere. Consultation took the form of local interviews and focus-group discussions, meetings with fishers and a national workshop. A pivotal activity was the development of a clear definition and qualifying criteria for subsistence fishers. A significant outcome was the identification of a separate small-scale commercial sector, previously erroneously lumped with subsistence fishers. Needs of fishers and problems identified during the process provided the basis for recommendations in the following areas: definitions, assessment and categorization of resources, management systems, communication mechanisms, application and allocation procedures, capacity building, compliance, research and monitoring, and funding and staff required for the management of this new sector. An evaluation is made of the opportunities presented by the SFTG process, constraints experienced and lessons learnt, giving important insights that are applicable to other similar processes, yet seldom documented in formal literature.     

Defining fishers in the South African context: subsistence,artisanal and small-scale commercial sectors

Evolution of a new policy for the management of marine fisheries in South Africa led to the Marine Living Resources Act of 1998 (MLRA). Among other innovations, this requires that management strategies be developed for subsistence fisheries. As a prerequisite, definitions and criteria are needed to identify and distinguish them. To achieve this, the Chief Director of Marine & Coastal Management (MCM), the authority responsible for managing marine fisheries, appointed a Subsistence Fisheries Task Group (SFTG) to make recommendations about definitions and modes of management. The process involved successive surveys and consultations with fishing communities, communication with MCM, and a national workshop of all participants. This led to consensus about the following definition:

Subsistence fishers are poor people who personally harvest marine resources as a source of food or to sell them to meet the basic needs of food security; they operate on or near to the shore or in estuaries, live in close proximity to the resource, consume or sell the resources locally, use low-technology gear (often as part of a long-standing community-based or cultural practice), and the kinds of resources they harvest generate only sufficient returns to meet the basic needs of food security.     

Recommendations for the management of subsistence fisheries in South Africa

This paper summarizes recommendations for the management of previously marginalized and neglected subsistence fisheries in South Africa. The recommendations stem from the activities and analyses of a task group appointed by Government and mandated to provide advice about management of the new fishing sector. The following focus areas were identified for attention: planning for implementation; definitions of subsistence fishers and other sectors; assessment and categorization of resources; determination of types of fishing activities; zonation; management systems; training; communication mechanisms; application and allocation procedures; compliance processes; research and monitoring; development of institutional capacity. Subsistence fishers were defined as poor people who personally harvest marine resources as a source of food or to sell them to meet basic needs of food security; they operate on or near to the shore or in estuaries, live in close proximity to the resource, consume or sell the resources locally, use low-technology gear (often as part of a long-standing community-based or cultural practice), and the resources they harvest generate only sufficient returns to meet basic needs of food security. A second group of informal fishers was identified that fishes for profit but cannot be equated to large industrial fisheries, and a new sector was proposed to accommodate these artisanal "small-scale commercial" fishers. Resources were classified for use by these different sectors based on accessibility, fishing methods, cash value and sustainability. In all, 12 different categories of subsistence and small-scale commercial fisheries were identified, and a preliminary list of resource species suitable for different fishing sectors is presented. A multi-tiered institutional management structure is recommended, with the national agency (MCM) controlling issues of national concern, and supporting and coordinating the activities of provincial and local structures. The management agents required for effective implementation were identified and include a dedicated national Subsistence Fisheries Management Unit, provincial management agencies that have the capacity to be delegated authority, Regional Fieldworkers, an independent Advisory Group for Subsistence Fisheries Management, local co-management structures, and community monitors responsible for observing and recording fishing activities and catches. Co-management, involving both authorities and users in joint management, is advocated in preference to previous top-down approaches, because of its potential to improve communication and compliance.     

Assessment of resource availability and suitability for subsistence fishers in South Africa,with a review of resource management procedures

The availability of resources and their suitability for subsistence and small-scale commercial fishers in South Africa were assessed and appropriate options for the management of resources recommended. Assessment of current resource utilization and recommendations for future subsistence and/or small-scale commercial use were based on information gathered during a nationwide survey of 144 subsistence fishing communities in South Africa and a review of relevant published and unpublished literature. Current patterns of resource use in three regions of the coast (West, South and East coasts) revealed that most true subsistence fisheries occur in the eastern half of the country. These fisheries are primarily focused on invertebrate species found on intertidal rocky shores and sandy beaches, or in estuaries. Fish are harvested by rod or handline, netting or traditional fishing methods (fishtraps, spearing, baited baskets). No "new" or previously underutilized resources were identified as suitable for subsistence fishing in any of the three regions. The potential for several new small-scale commercial fisheries was identified, but the need to retain certain resources for subsistence fisheries (rather than converting them to small-scale commercial fisheries) was evident in certain areas. Resources with high commercial value were not considered suitable for subsistence fishing, but rather for the introduction of small-scale commercial fisheries. The overall management strategy for the subsistence sector, which is currently in the process of being developed, must ensure sufficient flexibility to be able to take into account regional and site-specific requirements. It will also need to develop co-management structures, protect traditional fishing practices, avoid user conflict and provide for no-take areas, all within the framework of sustainable resource utilization.     

Case studies on the socio-economic characteristics and lifestyles of subsistence and informal fishers in South Africa

To develop a management strategy for informal fishers, a necessary first step is information about the nature of these fishers, their numbers and their socio-economic status. To accomplish this, a survey of socio-economic conditions and use of marine resources was undertaken in 1999 at 20 localities where fishing occurs around the coast of South Africa, concentrating on subsistence or small- to micro-scale artisanal commercial fishers. In each locality, 16–31 "fisher households" were surveyed by questionnaires, focus-group discussions and interviews with key informants. Demographic analyses revealed a low level of migrancy (～5%), an average of 5.3 persons per household and a mean age of 27. Only ～20% of fishers were women and ～15% were children. Poverty was prevalent: unemployment averaged 40.3% (much higher than the national norm of 29.3%). Mean adult equivalent income per month spanned R193–R735 among regions, and was not correlated with size of settlement. Education levels were low, only ～33% of people >20 years old having completed primary school. Migrancy was highest in rural areas (but still much less than the national norm), intermediate in towns and least in metropolitan areas. Household size, participation of women and poverty all followed similar trends. Comparing regions, the East Coast and the province of KwaZulu-Natal had higher migrancy rates, larger household sizes, greater poverty, and greater participation by women in fishing, than on the South and West coasts. Household expenditure on food was ～R450 per month on the South-East and KwaZulu-Natal coasts and ～R750 on the West Coast, and exceeded 60% of income (a measure of "food security") in about half the households surveyed. Harvested resources were sold, consumed or used as bait. In all regions, the two most frequently harvested resources were fish (mostly sold, predominantly fished by men) and intertidal rocky-shore invertebrates (largely consumed, and involving women to a greater degree). On the West Coast, rock lobster Jasus lalandii was the third-most important resource, but on the South and KwaZulu-Natal coasts this species was replaced by estuarine invertebrates. Abalone Haliotis midae, oysters, sandy-beach invertebrates and kelp or seaweeds made up the balance. Diversity of harvested resources increased west to east, following biogeographic trends. The resources could be divided into those of high value (rock lobsters, abalone and, to a lesser extent, fish) and those of lower value (such as limpets, mussels and bait organisms). It is argued that high-value resources are best used to create micro- and small-scale commercial enterprises that can serve to uplift poor fishers. Low-value resources constitute subsistence resources, for which preferential rights should be established for subsistence fishers, including development of exclusive-use zones where necessary. Emerging characteristics of fishing communities that were helpful in defining subsistence fishers in the South African context were poverty, harvest for self-use (whether by consumption or sale to meet basic needs of food security), use of low-technology gear, and concentration of effort on or from shores or in estuaries. At least portions of the catches of all resources are sold, and the majority of equipment is purchased, so any definition of subsistence fishers cannot exclude those who sell part of their catch or do not use hand-made equipment. Some success was evident with co-management, encouraging further exploration of this style of management for subsistence fishers.     

Fishers' perceptions,facilitating factors and challenges of community-based no-take zones in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve,Quintana Roo,Mexico

In response to fisheries decline in the Mexican Caribbean and continuing deterioration of the Mesoamerican Reef, conservation NGOs have begun to negotiate and collaboratively design a network of no-take zones (NTZs) with three fishing cooperatives in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve (SKBR), among other places along the coast of Quintana Roo. Spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) is the target of the main fishery within cooperative concessions. Fishers are uniquely positioned to enforce and monitor NTZs and evaluate their effectiveness. This study analyzes fishers' perceptions as indicators of social acceptance of NTZs, and identifies facilitating factors and challenges of the community-based process. Consistent with similar studies, responses of fishers (89 out of a population of 124) to a semi-structured interview showed that perceptions of NTZs largely reflect fishers' concerns and interests. A high proportion of fishers accurately identified main NTZ objectives of regulation, conservation and economic improvement, as well as NTZ locations. Further, fishers cared about ecosystem sustainability and, because NTZs would not significantly limit their main economic activity, endorsed the initiative while expecting additional benefits. Declining trends in lobster catch influenced a perceived need for NTZs. Major concerns were that illegal fishers would reap NTZ benefits and that economic impacts and benefits were uncertain. Most fishers found the decision-making process inclusive, were willing to take responsibility for enforcing NTZs and believed people leading the process were trustworthy. Differences in endorsement of NTZs among cooperatives points to the importance of understanding fishers’ incentives to collaborate, and the leadership and organizational dynamics which shape participatory processes. This analysis highlights challenges in advancing NTZs in complex ecological, socio-economic and regulatory contexts. It underscores the need for community-based processes that transcend understanding of conservation measures but also invests in sustainable, operative and trustful working relationships, as well as the urgency of interdisciplinary approaches in ensuring effective design and implementation of this relatively new fishery management tool.     

Dominant discourses,among fishers and middlemen,of the factors affecting coral reef fish distributions in Solomon Islands

Understanding resource stakeholders' perceptions of resource condition and management is vital to the formulation of efficacious management policy to sustain natural systems because agreement among stakeholders is likely to result in more effective outcomes. Understanding perceptions is particularly important in the context of coral reefs because threats are often diverse and management options are numerous, and therefore perceptions are likely to be diverse. This study identified the dominant discourses of reef fish decline, and increase, among 119 fishers and fish traders (herein middlemen) in Solomon Islands, and compared these discourses to current scientific knowledge. Discourses were then explored for dominant themes that might improve understanding of resource user perceptions. The findings suggest that certain fisher and middlemen discourses align with scientific understanding of the causal links between human activity and fish stock declines, and that many of the elicited management strategies are aligned with current scientific recommendations. A theme that emerged across the fisher and middlemen discourses of fish decline was a dichotomy in perception between fishing for economic affluence and fishing for subsistence and economic survival. A theme that emerged across discourses of fish increase was a dichotomy between support for command-and-control approaches and support for community-based approaches to management. Differences between some fisher and middlemen discourses were explained by the location in which interviews were conducted suggesting consensual perceptions achieved through local knowledge networks. Similarity between scientific understanding and local perceptions suggests that local resource users are aware of, and might support, fishery management strategies based on scientific evidence. Such strategies must consider factors such as location because resource user perceptions differ between locations and because many threats to the fishery and preferred management strategies are likely to be context specific.     

Small-scale fisheries and food security strategies in countries in the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) region: Angola,Namibia and South Africa

This paper provides an overview of the small-scale fisheries sector in countries within the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME), one of the most productive large marine ecosystems in the world. The study revealed that Angola, Namibia and South Africa have very different legal and policy frameworks, show different levels of compliance with international and regional agreements to protect the livelihoods and food security of small-scale fishers, as well as of integration of fisheries into food security objectives. Angolan law recognises and protects small-scale fishers through legal and institutional mechanisms. In Namibia, this sector of fishers is not legally recognised, while in South Africa traditional fishers have been largely excluded from the new fisheries management framework. Trends in national and regional fish consumption and in the extent of export orientation in fisheries are explored, as well as the potential threats to small-scale producers and food security in the region posed by ongoing drives to incorporate fisheries in the World Trade Organisation (WTO) agreements.     

Being heard: Thinking through different versions of rationality,epistemological policing and dissonances in marine conservation

Emerging from ethnographic research conducted on the west coast of South Africa, this paper explores the ways in which fishers contrast their experience of fishing prior to the implementation of the Marine Living Resources Act, and the rise of fortress style conservation in fisheries management. Conservation as rhetoric has been used as a powerful means of supporting and justifying fisheries management objectives. The paper argues that fishers engage with their environments in ways that are different from how management understands human–nature relations. As a consequence, fortress style fisheries management and policing disallow fishers to engage with the sea in the ways that are intrinsic to their fishing practices. This results, in many instances, in curtailing the ways in which fishers are allowed to think about and interact with the sea. With the impending implementation of EAF in South Africa and the global call for working with multiple knowledges, the paper calls for relational ways of engaging in conservation.     

Vulnerability of different types of fishers to potential implementation of a management plan in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Maldives

Understanding vulnerability of different types of fishers to the implications of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is crucial to its long-term sustainability. It helps direct management decisions of the MPA in a way that negative impacts on specific fishers can be mitigated. This study explored the vulnerability within specific groups of fishers, namely, commercial, subsistence and recreational fishers in the context of the largest MPA in the Maldives – the South Ari Atoll Marine Protected Area (SAMPA). SAMPA is subject to a future management plan that is likely to bring changes in how resources can be accessed in the area. In order to explore the vulnerability of the fisher groups, their sensitivity to this change was measured through an exploratory factor analysis and a sensitivity index. It was found that commercial fishers were likely to be the most vulnerable group as the management plan could potentially threaten their livelihood. Subsistence fishers were found to be next, as changes in access to SAMPA will potentially influence how they obtain their dietary protein. Recreational fishers were also found to vulnerable due to the nature of their fishing operation. However, relative to other groups, their vulnerability was likely to be much lower. To ensure strategic measures are designed to alleviate these potential vulnerabilities, this study proposed collaborative stakeholder participation throughout the development process of SAMPA's management plan, and also as a platform to build much needed confidence in MPAs among fishers in the Maldives.     

Fish stocks and their management: The changing face of fisheries in South Africa

Transformation of South African marine fisheries over the past 10 years has had to balance economic stability, equity and sustainability. This is being done in three ways. First, access rights have been redistributed, increasing the number of rights holders 20-fold and the participation of historically disadvantaged individuals from 0.75% to 62%. Second, established companies have undergone internal transformation. Third, subsistence fishers have formally been recognised. New focuses include co-management, ecosystem-based management and marine protected areas. Further necessary steps include parity in salaries, attention to artisanal fishers, embracement of co-management, expansion of subsistence management and effective enforcement. Most stocks are healthy or recovering but exceptions, such as abalone, warn how quickly stocks can be decimated if co-operation is not achieved.     

Unreported fishing, hungry people and political turmoil: the recipe for a food security crisis in Madagascar?

Madagascar, the world's fourth largest island, is one of the world's poorest developing countries, and its people depend heavily on marine resources for subsistence and income. Exports of these resources and foreign fishing access agreements are also important, at least from a large-scale economic perspective. In recent years, concerns have been voiced amongst local fishers and industry groups regarding the growth of the country's fishing effort. Despite these concerns, existing knowledge of the scale, composition and trends of Malagasy fisheries remains poor, and there is negligible information regarding unreported catches and illegal fishing in Madagascar's waters. Small-scale fisheries, which are often substantial in developing countries such as Madagascar, are often unreported or underestimated. Unfortunately, fisheries legislations, management plans and foreign fishing access agreements are often influenced by these incomplete data, leading to serious over-estimations of resource availability. This also appears to be the situation in Madagascar, where the reconstruction of total catches by all Malagasy fisheries sectors conducted here showed that total catches between 1950 and 2008 were twice the volume reported by national fisheries agencies. Most importantly, much of the subsistence sector is missing from official statistics, and signs of decline have already been observed in several stocks, suggesting that current levels of catches are likely to be exceeding sustainable yields. This has profound implications for the economic and ecological sustainability of fisheries, as well as food security in a country where people rely heavily on the ocean for their daily protein needs and livelihoods.     

Unfinished business: Taiwan's experience with rights-based coastal fisheries management

This paper examines a case involving a mix of Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries, co-management and the competition for using coastal zones. In the 2000s, Taiwan's government initiated a remodeling of the fishery right system, which is a rights-based approach to fisheries management, as an attempt to address conflicts between fishers and developers regarding the use of coastal space and to put community-based co-management into practice. The paper particularly compares the system before and after 2000 and identifies areas of concern in the implementation of the remodeled system. The results show that the government's support for this system signifies progress in the right direction. However, concerns emerge, mostly involving fishers' low participation, fishermen's association's lack of technical skills and financial resources, and the division of management responsibility. The government is advised to play a more active role in dealing with these concerns. Finally, the paper reveals that the factor of competition for using coastal zones poses a challenge to co-management, and suggests a holistic view with integrated coastal management or marine spatial planning practices, for developing co-management under the fishery right system.     

Perceptions and preferences of commercial fishers for dedicated access privilege framework in a multispecies fishery

The decline of the world's fisheries and the inability of traditional management frameworks to maintain them, has led managers to adopt alternative management frameworks. The use of dedicated access privileges have often been shown to have varying popularity among factions within the commercial fishing industry and managers. Here, we examine commercial fishers' preference for alternative management frameworks in the context of a unique multispecies fisheries of the Florida Keys. By surveying commercial fishers, we find that that the size of operation plays no role in affecting fisher perception regarding dedicated access privileges. Furthermore, fishers who are organized are less likely to support dedicated access privilege frameworks. Overall, we do not find enough support in the fishing industry for the implementation of dedicated access privileges in the Florida Keys. These findings can provide inputs in developing effective management plans in the region.     

A decade of illegal fishing in Table Mountain National Park (2000–2009): trends in the illicit harvest of abalone Haliotis midae and West Coast rock lobster Jasus lalandii

Illegal fishing activities are reported to be on the increase in South Africa, including in its marine protected areas (MPAs). Research is presented on the nature and the scale of illegal fishing in Table Mountain National Park (TMNP) by analysing the numbers of abalone Haliotis midae and West Coast rock lobster Jasus lalandii confiscated from fishers operating in the park's marine protected area between 2000 and 2009. Data were collected from offence logbooks maintained by South African National Parks rangers and managers, the South African Police Services, and interviews with alleged or self-confessed illegal fishers. The research findings indicate that the annual numbers of illegally fished abalone and rock lobsters have increased significantly over time. Spatial analysis suggests that confiscations of abalone occur predominantly on the east coast of the park, whereas higher confiscations of illegally fished rock lobsters occur on the west coast. It is clear from this research that new and more efficient approaches will need to be designed and implemented to minimise illegal fishing in the TMNP MPA. Context-specific conservation targets that acknowledge and integrate social as well as developmental needs are required, and may be essential for limiting biodiversity loss in the longer term, which will ultimately ensure the success of fisheries management and conservation in TMNP.     

Artisanal fishing as an undesirable way of life? The implications for governance of fishers' wellbeing aspirations in coastal Uruguay and southeastern Brazil

In Piriápolis (Uruguay) and Paraty (Brazil), artisanal fishers view fishing as a way of life, rather than just a job. The freedom of fishing and an inherent satisfaction in the occupation figure large in fishers' attachment to it. There are strong indications, however, that the relationship of fishers to fishing is changing. First, while fishers from both areas wish to keep fishing in the future, they are moving into different occupations or supplementing their work in fishing with other employment. Second, artisanal fishers from Piriápolis and Paraty identified fishing as an undesirable occupation for their children because they believe that in the future fishing will no longer be a viable occupation. Nonetheless, despite the wishes of their parents, young men and women in Piriápolis and to a much lesser degree in Paraty continue to become involved in fishing and fishing-related activities. The paper uses a social wellbeing perspective to interpret fisher responses to the changing circumstances they face. Wellbeing is a lens to understand the distinctive features of artisanal fisheries and helps to understand fishers' disenchantment with fisheries governance processes, in a scenario where participation is being promoted by the state in Uruguay and Brazil. The implications of these findings for state efforts to promote fisher participation in governance are discussed.     

Heterogeneous management and conservation perceptions within the gooseneck barnacle co-management system in Asturias (N. Spain)

Stakeholders’ perceptions can influence the success of a fishery. It is important to take these perceptions into account when evaluating the development of a management system and its conservation policies. Structured questionnaires were used to determine fishers’ management and conservation perceptions of the Asturian gooseneck barnacle co-management system. Perceptions were analyzed for the entire fishery and for different socioeconomic factors, these were: location, age, years in the management system, way of access, alternative income sources and income. Fishers’ perceptions varied widely among socioeconomic factors. In fact, a trade-off between management and conservation perceptions was observed for the different categories within each socioeconomic factor, particularly for the years in the management system, location and income factors. Despite the heterogeneity in perceptions, the co-management system has successfully generated a strong conservation ethic in its resource users. Furthermore, as a group, gooseneck barnacle fishers hold positive perceptions on the performance of the management system. When generating management policies, fisheries’ managers must take the heterogeneity of resource users present in the fishery into account. The gooseneck barnacle co-management system demonstrates that even within the same fishery there can be multiple paths to sustainability.     

Towards the declaration of a large marine protected area: a subtidal ichthyofaunal survey of the Pondoland coast in the Eastern Cape,South Africa

A subtidal marine ichthyofaunal survey was carried out on shallow reefs (1–30m deep) in the Pondoland region between the Mtamvuna River and Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The purpose of this survey was to provide the baseline data required for the zonation of a large marine protected area proposed for the region. Survey work was carried out in May and June during 2002 and 2003. A seafloor map based on earlier seismic-reflection profiling data, coupled with fishers' co-ordinates of known reefs in the area, was used to plan the survey. An underwater visual census (UVC), using the point-count method, assessed fish diversity, relative abundance and size structure. During the UVC, a total of 261 point fish-counts, covering an area of 14 288m², was completed. A total of 138 fish species from 49 different families was identified and a relatively high proportion of endemic species (26.6%) were recorded. As a result of the turbid conditions encountered south of Mbotyi, numbers and diversity of fish species observed declined with increasing latitude. Endemic sparid linefish species, which are overe-xploited in other areas, were particularly abundant in this region, and a number of new range distributions of various species were recorded during the survey. The results of this survey contributed towards the zonation of the Pondoland Marine Protected Area, which was proclaimed in June 2004.     

A new (old) approach to inshore resources management in Samoa

Increasing populations and development in many of the small Pacific Island nations have placed heavy pressures on coastal environments and on inshore fisheries. The population of Samoa, in the Southwestern Pacific, has increased 5–6-fold in the past 150 years. Wetlands, lagoons and coral reefs have been seriously degraded because of inappropriate land-use and fisheries practices and recent catastrophic cyclones, and many fish and invertebrate stocks have declined in the past 10–15 years. A research program was established in 1990 to determine the status of the coastal and inshore environments, to monitor inshore subsistence and commercial fisheries, to determine the status of stocks, and to identify potential management actions. An inventory of inshore resources was produced using aerial photography and ground and underwater surveys. Fisheries catch and effort were established through a national census, questionnaire surveys in households and schools, and creel and market surveys. A major aid program was commenced in 1995 by the Australian government (AusAID) to assist Samoa to establish an effective inshore fisheries and environment management program. A key strategy was the devolution of powers in inshore fisheries management back from the national government to the villages and local fishers. A culturally appropriate co-management model was developed and tested, and has now been adopted by many villages. An inshore fisheries extension capability was developed within Samoa's Fisheries Division to assist villagers to undertake their own environmental and fisheries surveys; identify major factors affecting fisheries; identify ways of reducing these factors; establish an agreed (between village council and national government) plan of management and regulations; and establish their own fisheries management bodies. By the end of 1997 the Inshore Fisheries Extension Service had been established and trained; 26 villages had entered the co-management program and established their own plans of management; and 20 fisheries reserves had been established. The techniques for inshore environmental and fisheries assessment and management developed for Samoa are applicable, with appropriate modification, to subsistence fishing communities elsewhere in the South Pacific.