Vulnerability of laptop computers to volcanic ash and gas

Laptop computers are vital components of critical infrastructure sectors and a common tool in broader society. As they become more widely used, their exposure to volcanic hazards will increase. Therefore, understanding how laptops will function in volcanic environments is necessary to provide suitable mitigation options. In this study, laptop computers were subjected to volcanic ash and gas in both laboratory and field settings. None of the laptops sustained permanent damage in laboratory experiments; however, ash contamination did reduce the functionality of keyboards, CD drives, and cooling fans. Several laptops shut down temporarily due to overheating following ash contamination. In field experiments, laptops were exposed to high concentrations of volcanic gases at White Island, New Zealand. These laptops did not sustain permanent damage as only a small amount of gas was able to enter the laptops. However, metal components on the outside of the laptop did sustain minor corrosion. Re-examination of the laptops after 6?months indicated they were in full working order. Printed circuit boards suffered significant corrosion damage and ceased working only when in direct and sustained contact with volcanic gases. Simple mitigation techniques such as isolating laptops inside heavy duty polyethylene bags were effective. Overall, our experiments demonstrate that laptops have a relatively low risk of damage from volcanic ash and gas exposure, but have a low-medium risk of loss of functionality in ash environments. We think this has implications for other electronic equipment used extensively in critical infrastructure services.     

Properties of dust source material and volcanic ash in Iceland

The volcanic origin, primarily basaltic, of most of the surface material in Iceland influences its physical properties and appearance. Size distributions, shape analyses and melting experiments were made for surface material collected in high-erosion dust source areas and fresh volcanic ash deposits to determine whether they differ from one another and from dust from other major dust sources. The major differences found between Icelandic dust and dust from other major dust sources in the world, such as the Sahara, are in the particle shapes, lower density and darker colour. Icelandic dust particles greater than 20 μm retain volcanic morphological properties that are also found in fresh volcanic ash. Dust and fresh volcanic ash particles less than 20 μm are crystalline and blocky in nature, similar to the dust from other global source regions. The finer grained (<20 μm) Icelandic particles will have similar suspension and transport behaviours and be similarly hazardous to health and infrastructure as non-Icelandic dust. The coarser particles (>20 μm) will have different suspension and transport behaviours than other dusts due to the volcanic morphology. Icelandic surface material has between 5% and 30% glassy particles compared to fresh volcanic ash which has more than 50% glassy particles. Glassy particles were observed to melt at a lower temperature than the mineral grains; and, as a result, volcanic ash is found to be more threatening to aircraft engines than the typical dust from Iceland. Icelandic dust was observed to be blocky, or plate-like in the respirable size fraction, suggesting similar health hazards as dust from other regions.     

Corrosion of metal roof materials related to volcanic ash interactions

Metal roofing material is commonly used for residential and industrial roofs in volcanically active areas. Increased corrosion of metal roofing from chemically reactive volcanic ash following ash deposition post-eruption is a major concern due to decreasing the function and stability of roofs. Currently, assessment of ash-induced corrosion is anecdotal, and quantitative data are lacking. Here, we systematically evaluate the corrosive effects of volcanic ash, specifically ash leachates, on a variety of metal roofing materials (i.e. weathered steel, zinc, galvanized steel, and Colorsteel©) utilizing weathering chamber experiments and direct acid treatments. Weathering chamber tests were carried out for up to 30 days, and visual, chemical, and surface analyses did not definitively identify significant corrosion in any of the test roofing metal samples. Direct concentrated acid treatments with hydrochloric (HCl), sulphuric (H₂SO₄), and hydrofluoric (HF) acids demonstrate that roofing materials are chemically resilient. Our experimental results suggest that ash-leachate-related corrosion is a longer-term process (>1 month), potentially related to a multitude of factors including increased ash leachate concentrations, the dissolution of the glass matrix of the ash, moisture retention at the ash-surface boundary, and potential reactions involving photo-oxidation. Overall, corrosion is not a simple process related to the short-term release of acid and/or salt leachates from the ash surface, but a product of dynamic interactions involving ash and water at the surface of metal roofing material for extended periods.     

Vulnerability of farm water supply systems to volcanic ash fall

Agriculture is critically dependent on continuity of water quality and quantity. It is well-established that even small quantities of volcanic ash can disrupt municipal water supplies, with known impacts to quality including: acidification, increases in turbidity and ionic concentrations. In addition, delivery systems may be blocked or damaged by hard and abrasive suspended ash and related ash-cleanup operations place extra stress on water reserves. The aim of this study was to characterise the key areas of vulnerability of farm water supplies to volcanic ashfall, and to identify management recommendations to reduce these. From literature review and case studies of farms impacted by the 1991 Pinatubo (Philippines) and 1991 Hudson (Chile) eruptions, key issues were: sedimentation of irrigation ditches and drinking water ponds, turbidity induced abrasion of sprinkler nozzles and water pumps, and damage to electric pumps (by ash on air-intakes). Building on this, we characterised the water-use regimes and water supply system vulnerability of eight case-study farms from across the North Island, New Zealand. From this, we propose an index system to evaluate the vulnerability of farm water supply systems. The key contributors to the vulnerability index include: water source, storage capacity, reliance on electricity, independence/interconnectedness of system elements, volume of water use and other load factors. These allow identification of key strategies for mitigating water supply vulnerability during prevention, preparation, response and recovery phases of a volcanic eruption.     

Minerals formed and mineral formation from volcanic ash by weathering

Weathering of volcanic ash and pumice is unique regarding minerals formed and mineral formation. These minerals include allophane, imogolite, opaline silica and some halloysites, and have distinctive structures and properties. Studies on the surface and subsurface weathering of various volcanic ashes in different settings are reviewed. This review illustrates that relatively rapid weathering of finely comminuted volcanic ash well reflects the effects of climate, vegetation and time, and produces various combinations of weathering products. The moisture regime, the nature and amount of organic matter incorporated, the deposition of volcanic ash as overburden, and the chemical and mineralogical composition of parent ash are important in controlling the mineral formation in weathered volcanic ash.     

The United States national volcanic ash operations plan for aviation

Volcanic-ash clouds are a known hazard to aviation, requiring that aircraft be warned away from ash-contaminated airspace. The exposure of aviation to potential hazards from volcanoes in the United States is significant. In support of existing interagency operations to detect and track volcanic-ash clouds, the United States has prepared a National Volcanic Ash Operations Plan for Aviation to strengthen the warning process in its airspace. The US National Plan documents the responsibilities, communication protocols, and prescribed hazard messages of the Federal Aviation Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Geological Survey, and Air Force Weather Agency. The plan introduces a new message format, a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation, to provide clear, concise information about volcanic activity, including precursory unrest, to air-traffic controllers (for use in Notices to Airmen) and other aviation users. The plan is online at http://www.ofcm.gov/p35-nvaopa/pdf/FCM-P35-2007-NVAOPA.pdf. While the plan provides general operational practices, it remains the responsibility of the federal agencies involved to implement the described procedures through orders, directives, etc. Since the plan mirrors global guidelines of the International Civil Aviation Organization, it also provides an example that could be adapted by other countries.     

Removal of Cr from synthetic wastewater by sorption into volcanic ash soil

The possibility of using volcanic ash soils (VAS) or Andisols as a low-cost and natural adsorbent is investigated in this study for the removal of Cr (VI) from synthetic wastewater. Andisols can be used as adsorbent because they are characterized by the presence of non-crystalline secondary minerals such as allophane and imogolite that show variable charge characteristics and have the ability to retain cations and anions. The adsorption of Cr on to two VAS from Mt. Isarog and Mandalagan (B-Horizon), Philippines, was carried out at ambient temperature using batch adsorption studies. The effects of different parameters such as amount of adsorbent, contact time, initial Cr concentration and pH of the solution were investigated. The results showed that the VAS from Isarog is more effective in the removal of Cr than in Mandalagan. The maximum removal efficiency of the Isarog soil for a Cr concentration of 10mg/L reached 89% with a dose of 20 g/L at a moderately acidic pH of 3. The Mandalagan soil on the other hand could remove only 65% at the same pH conditions and parameters. The difference in the removal of the two soils may be attributed to their physico-chemical properties in which the Isarog soil has higher clay content, porosity and lower bulk density. Isarog soil has fine particles with higher surface area and more active non-crystalline minerals and thus has higher removal efficiency than Mandalagan soil. Based on the results, the use of VAS from Isarog appears to be economical and an alternative to commercially available adsorbents for the removal of Cr from contaminated wastewater.     

桂西铝土矿中火山灰特征及其地质意义

岩溶型铝土矿中火山物质参与成矿的直接证据需要进一步明确。通过线路调查和剖面研究，在桂西大范围内的铝土矿及其早期的铝土质岩中观察到大量的火山灰，含量大于30%；火山灰种类有岩屑、晶屑、玻屑和火山尘，塑性—半塑性变形及刚性爆裂显著，自由降落为主，属原地—准原地沉积；火山灰易于分解为水铝石、高岭石、赤铁矿等微细矿物，屑状火山灰相对尘状火山灰更易于矿化，大量火山灰主要以直接铝土矿化作用成矿。元素地球化学特征显示铝土矿和铝土质岩具有亲岩浆性，不活动元素图解判别及铝土矿测年数据显示火山灰原岩浆以碱性玄武岩为主，与岛弧火山岩一致，主要来自于哀牢山—松马造山带的二叠纪岛弧，铝土矿层具有穿时性，部分火山灰可来源于峨眉山火成岩。铝土矿层中的火山灰丰富，跨度长，可能是瓜德鲁普统末生物灭绝的肇凶。     

桂西铝土矿中火山灰特征及其地质意义

岩溶型铝土矿中火山物质参与成矿的直接证据需要进一步明确。通过线路调查和剖面研究，在桂西大范围内的铝土矿及其早期的铝土质岩中观察到大量的火山灰，含量大于30%；火山灰种类有岩屑、晶屑、玻屑和火山尘，塑性—半塑性变形及刚性爆裂显著，自由降落为主，属原地—准原地沉积；火山灰易于分解为水铝石、高岭石、赤铁矿等微细矿物，屑状火山灰相对尘状火山灰更易于矿化，大量火山灰主要以直接铝土矿化作用成矿。元素地球化学特征显示铝土矿和铝土质岩具有亲岩浆性，不活动元素图解判别及铝土矿测年数据显示火山灰原岩浆以碱性玄武岩为主，与岛弧火山岩一致，主要来自于哀牢山—松马造山带的二叠纪岛弧，铝土矿层具有穿时性，部分火山灰可来源于峨眉山火成岩。铝土矿层中的火山灰丰富，跨度长，可能是瓜德鲁普世末生物灭绝的肇凶。     

火山灰锆石U-Pb定年在沉积岩定年上的应用

本文系统总结了沉积岩定年的意义和常用的定年手段,详细介绍了火山灰锆石U-Pb定年在沉积岩定年上的应用。从火山事件层的分布、火山灰夹层的识别、火山灰锆石的区分、应用实例等方面对前人的研究进行概述,旨在为科研工作者运用火山灰锆石U-Pb定年提供借鉴经验。与传统的成岩矿物K-Ar/Ar-Ar和Rb-Sr定年技术相比,火山灰锆石U-Pb定年在沉积岩定年上具有显著的优势。火山灰夹层具有广泛性和等时性,且锆石U-Pb同位素体系不容易受到扰动,因此火山灰锆石U-Pb定年是高精度沉积岩定年的首选方案。沉积岩定年涉及到野外观察、样品采集、室内岩相学观察及地质年代学分析和年龄解释等多个环节。在这些环节中,识别火山灰夹层是最关键的一点,也是一大难点。这需要明确火山灰夹层的岩石类型并了解火山事件沉积层的分布,在此基础上通过野外观察和室内研究进一步判别,这样可以更加准确地识别出火山灰夹层。此外,火山灰锆石定年需要区分火山灰锆石、碎屑锆石、继承/捕获锆石,可以通过矿物形态学和矿物化学特征来加以区分。

     

Potential loading damage to industrial storage tanks due to volcanic ash fallout

The phenomenon of volcanic fallout ash from Mt. Etna in Sicily (Italy) is well known and frequent in recent years, as in the period 2001–2004. As a consequence, significant problems for the population, road, rail and air traffic and production activities have occurred. The industrial areas of Catania and Augusta-Priolo, located in south eastern Sicily, might be involved during particular weather conditions. This paper aims at determining the potential scenarios of damage to industrial facilities caused by volcanic ash fallout. The work has been focused on the study of both fixed and floating roof storage tanks, containing flammable liquids, and examines extreme failures damage causing the greatest loss of containment for these facilities. To include scenarios arising from natural phenomena (Na-Tech events) in the standard risk assessment procedure, the estimation of the vulnerability of these facilities is necessary. The study has been applied to the area surrounding Mt. Etna, and the procedure can also be extended to other case studies.     

The weathering of a late Tertiary volcanic ash: Importance of organic solutes

The weathering of a late Tertiary volcanic ash near Jackson, Wyoming, was studied by sampling water percolating through the ash with suction lysimeters, and by examination of the associated solid phases. Soluble organic compounds derived from vegetation control the release and transport of solutes by complexing Al and Fe, and by causing low pH values. The concentrations of Na, K, Ca, and Mg, as well as those of Al and Fe correlate with the dissolved organic carbon concentrations (DOC) and follow an annual cycle with a maximum in spring. DOC concentrations averaged 5O mg C per liter, and values as high as 260 mg/l were observed. Al and Fe concentrations ranged as high as 5 mg/l. The dissolved organic matter was largely in the form of humic acids, although minor amounts of oxalate, acetate, and formate were also present. The pH of the percolating waters ranged from 4.3 to 6.5 with a mean of 5.2.During laboratory weathering experiments with the same ash in the absence of dissolved organic compounds, pH values ranged from 7.3 to 9.5, dissolved Al and Fe concentrations were below the detection limit, and there was little resemblance between the compositions of the solutions and the compositions observed in the field. Any model attempting to describe weathering in a comparable setting must incorporate biological mechanisms as the dominant controls.     

Comparative petrophysical and geochemical characteristics of thermal and volcanic ash from southeastern India

This paper examines the difference in the geophysical and chemical characteristic of the volcanic ash and thermal fly ash to evaluate environmental pollution. Natural volcanic ash (VA) samples from Sagirelu, Cuddapah dist., Andhra Pradesh and thermal fly ash (FA) samples from the Thermal Power Station, Ennore, Chennai, were collected, analysed and compared. The particle sizes of the ash samples were determined using the laser particle size analyzer and the different surface morphological characters were studied using SEM analyses. The chemical components such as pH, major oxides, trace metals and mineral compositions were determined using pH metre, XRF and XRD methods. pH value of the volcanic ash varies from 8.5 to 8.9 indicating its alkalinity (8.5 to 9) in volcanic ash, while the thermal ash is neutral to mildly alkaline with pH varying from 6 to 7.5. Both the ash samples have higher concentration value in SiO₂ (VA - 69.25%, FA - 46%) in major oxides and Cl (VA - 0.8%, FA - 0.1%) in trace elements. Quartz is the dominant mineral in both the types of ash, however, the volcanic ash has amorphous silica, while the fly ash contains crystalline quartz.     

Quaternary volcanic ash zones on the Iceland Plateau,southern Norwegian Sea

Four Quaternary volcanic ash zones in the southern Norwegian Sea have been investigated in core P57-7 from the Iceland Plateau. Both the geochemical composition and morphological variation of each ash layer have been studied. The four volcanic ash zones appear in the light oxygen isotope stages 1, 5, 7 and 11. The ash zones are composed of transparent platy grains, light brown transparent grains, brown blocky and black blocky grains and white/transparent pumice, and each zone shows a distinct stratigraphic evolution. The geochemical results show a mixture of basaltic and silicic grains in each ash zone, and that each zone contains grains from more than one eruption. The geochemical investigations strongly suggest that all the ashes are derived from Iceland. The youngest ash zone includes two layers, which based on their geochemical composition and stratigraphic position are correlated with the ¹⁴C-dated Vedde Ash (10 600 yr BP) and Saksunarvatn Ash (9 100 yr BP). Possible sources on Iceland for these layers are discussed.     

Far-travelled ash in past and future eruptions: combining tephrochronology with volcanic studies

Studies of recent eruptions have improved our understanding of volcanic ash transport and deposition, but have also raised important questions about the behaviour of far-travelled (distal) volcanic ash. In particular, it is difficult to reconcile estimates of distal ash mass and transport distance determined from eyewitness accounts, mapped deposits, satellite-based observations and cryptotephra records. Here we address this problem using data from well-characterized eruptions that, collectively, include all four data types. Data from recent eruptions allow us to relate eyewitness accounts to mapped deposits on the ground and satellite-based observations of ash in the air; observations from an historical eruption link eyewitness accounts to cryptotephra deposits. Together these examples show that (i) 10–20% of the erupted mass is typically deposited outside the mapped limits; (ii) estimates of the ash mass transported in volcanic clouds cannot account for all of this unmapped ash; and (iii) ash fall observed at distances beyond mapped deposits can have measurable impacts, and can form cryptotephra deposits with high (>~1000 cm⁻³) shard counts. We conclude that cryptotephra data can be incorporated into volcanological studies of ash transport and deposition and provide important insight into both the behaviour and impacts of far-travelled volcanic ash particles.