Simulation of salinity variability and the related freshwater flux forcing in the tropical Pacific: An evaluation using the Beijing normal university earth system model (BNU-ESM)

The climatology and interannual variability of sea surface salinity(SSS) and freshwater flux(FWF) in the equatorial Pacific are analyzed and evaluated using simulations from the Beijing Normal University Earth System Model(BNU-ESM).The simulated annual climatology and interannual variations of SSS, FWF, mixed layer depth(MLD), and buoyancy flux agree with those observed in the equatorial Pacific. The relationships among the interannual anomaly fields simulated by BNU-ESM are analyzed to illustrate the climate feedbacks induced by FWF in the tropical Pacific. The largest interannual variations of SSS and FWF are located in the western-central equatorial Pacific. A positive FWF feedback effect on sea surface temperature(SST) in the equatorial Pacific is identified. As a response to El Ni ?no–Southern Oscillation(ENSO),the interannual variation of FWF induces ocean processes which, in turn, enhance ENSO. During El Ni ?no, a positive FWF anomaly in the western-central Pacific(an indication of increased precipitation rates) acts to enhance a negative salinity anomaly and a negative surface ocean density anomaly, leading to stable stratification in the upper ocean. Hence, the vertical mixing and entrainment of subsurface water into the mixed layer are reduced, and the associated El Ni ?no is enhanced. Related to this positive feedback, the simulated FWF bias is clearly reflected in SSS and SST simulations, with a positive FWF perturbation into the ocean corresponding to a low SSS and a small surface ocean density in the western-central equatorial Pacific warm pool.     

Effects of interannual salinity variability on the barrier layer in the western-central equatorial Pacific: A diagnostic analysis from Argo

ABSTRACT In this paper, interannual variations in the barrier layer thickness （BLT） are analyzed using Argo three-dimensional temperature and salinity data, with a locus on the effects of interannually varying salinity on the evolution of the El Nifio Southern Oscillation （ENSO）. The interannually varying BLT exhibits a zonal seesaw pattern across the equatorial Pacific during ENSO cycles. This phenomenon has been attributed to two different physical processes. During E1 Nifio （La Nifia）, the barrier layer （BL） is anomalously thin （thick） west of about 160°E, and thick （thin） to the east. In the western equatorial Pacific （the western part： 130°-160°E）, interannual variations of the BLT indicate a lead of one year relative to those of the ENSO onset. The interannual variations of the BLT can be largely attributed to the interannual temperature variability, through its dominant effect on the isothermal layer depth （ILD）. However, in the central equatorial Pacific （the eastern part： 160~E- 170~W）, interannual variations of the BL almost synchronously vary with ENSO, with a lead of about two months relative to those of the local SST. In this region, the interannual variations of the BL are significantly affected by the interannually varying salinity, mainly through its modulation effect on the mixed layer depth （MLD）. As evaluated by a onedimensional boundary layer ocean model, the BL around the dateline induced by interannual salinity anomalies can significantly affect the temperature fields in the upper ocean, indicating a positive feedback that acts to enhance ENSO.     

Quantitative analysis of the feedback induced by the freshwater flux in the tropical Pacific using CMIP5

Freshwater flux (FWF) directly affects sea surface salinity (SSS) and hence modulates sea surface temperature (SST) in the tropical Pacific. This paper quantifies a positive correlation between FWF and SST using observations and simulations of the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) to analyze the interannual variability in the tropical Pacific. Comparisons among the displacements of FWF, SSS and SST interannual variabilities illustrate that a large FWF variability is located in the west-central equatorial Pacific, covarying with a large SSS variability, whereas a large SST variability is located in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Most CMIP5 models can reproduce the fact that FWF leads to positive feedback to SST through an SSS anomaly as observed. However, the difference in each model's performance results from different simulation capabilities of the CMIP5 models in the magnitudes and positions of the interannual variabilities, including the mixed layer depth and the buoyancy flux in the equatorial Pacific. SSS anomalies simulated from the CMIP5 multi-model are sensitive to FWF interannual anomalies, which can lead to differences in feedback to interannual SST variabilities. The relationships among the FWF, SSS and SST interannual variabilities can be derived using linear quantitative measures from observations and the CMIP5 multi-model simulations. A 1 mm d-1 FWF anomaly corresponds to an SSS anomaly of nearly 0.12 psu in the western tropical Pacific and a 0.11°C SST anomaly in the eastern tropical Pacific.     

热带太平洋盐度年际变化对海表温度异常作用比较：1997/1998、2014/2015和2015/2016年El Niño事件

海洋盐度变化为研究气候变化的机制提供了一个新的视角。本文通过对比1997/1998年、2015/2016年两次强厄尔尼诺（El Ni?o）事件和2014/2015年特殊El Ni?o事件,对盐度变化及其影响海表面温度异常（SSTA）的物理过程进行了比较分析。研究表明,El Ni?o和南方涛动（El Ni?o–Southern Oscillation, ENSO）发展的强弱与热带西太平洋大范围海表层盐度异常（SSSA）及其向东扩散的差异有明显关联。1997/1998、2015/2016年赤道东太平洋SSTA的增暖,对应两次强El Ni?o事件,在发生年4月,中西太平洋海域出现了明显的负SSSA,之后东移至日期变更线以西,SSSA引发的混合层深度（MLD）变浅、障碍层厚度（BLT）变厚,导致热带中—西太平洋表层升温增强,促使了赤道中太平洋的早期变暖;2014/2015年弱El Ni?o事件虽然在发生年4月,位于赤道中西太平洋出现了负SSSA,但没有发展东移,导致BLT的增厚过程减弱,对表层温度的调制作用减弱甚至消失。三次事件对应的盐度变化过程中,水平平流和淡水通量（FWF）引起的表层强迫是影响盐度收支的主要因子,水平平流影响盐度异常的前期变化,触发事件的发生;热带太平洋西部降水引起的FWF负异常的影响最为显著,对ENSO异常信号出现后SSSA的维持起决定性作用。相比较两次强El Ni?o事件,2014/2015年El Ni?o对应的早期FWF负异常没有发展和东移,并且之后迅速减弱,导致中西太平洋盐度负趋势减缓,MLD加深,BLT变薄,促使上表层海水冷却,抑制了赤道东太平洋的早期变暖和ENSO发展。研究结果表明,盐度变化与ENSO密切相关,热带中西太平洋海域早期表层盐度变化可能可以作为SSTA的指数。特别地,SSSA在调节SSTA时,不仅影响它的强度,而且可以作为判断ENSO是否发展及其强弱的前兆因子。     

Distinguished Effects of Interannual Salinity Variability on the Development of the Central-Pacific El Nino Events

El Nio events in the central equatorial Pacific (CP) are gaining increased attention,due to their increasing intensity within the global warming context.Various physical processes have been identified in the climate system that can be responsible for the modulation of El Nio,especially the effects of interannual salinity variability.In this work,a comprehensive data analysis is performed to illustrate the effects of interannual salinity variability using surface and subsurface salinity fields from the Met Office ENSEMBLES (EN3) quality controlled ocean dataset.It is demonstrated that during the developing phase of an El Nio event,a negative sea surface salinity (SSS) anomaly in the western-central basin acts to freshen the mixed layer (ML),decrease oceanic density in the upper ocean,and stabilize the upper layers.These related oceanic processes tend to reduce the vertical mixing and entrainment of subsurface water at the base of the ML,which further enhances the warm sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies associated with the El Nio event.However,the effects of interannually variable salinity are much more significant during the CP-El Nio than during the eastern Pacific (EP) El Nio,indicating that the salinity effect might be an important contributor to the development of CP-El Nio events.     

CMIP5多模式模拟两类El Niño海表盐度分布及与降水的关系

利用CMIP5提供的25个工业革命前控制试验（piControl）模拟数据评估了热带太平洋两类El Ni?o（即东部EP和中部CP型El Ni?o）的海表盐度（SSS）空间结构差异及其与海表温度（SST）和降水的关系。结果表明:（1）大部分模式能够模拟出EP和CP型空间结构,两类El Ni?o中的SST、降水和SSS的空间技巧评分依次减小,其中,EP型SST和降水水平分布的模拟能力强于CP型,SSS则为CP型强于EP型,CP型模拟的SST、SSS和降水异常中心位置较EP型偏西且强度偏弱;（2）CP型SST、降水和SSS三者空间分布的线性一致性比EP型好,即在CP型中,SST影响降水,进而影响SSS,同时SSS对SST调制的反馈机制较显著,而对于EP型,由于海洋水平平流和非局地效应等因素,使得SST与SSS空间对应较差;（3）依据多模式模拟的SSS空间技巧评分高低将CMIP5模式分为两类,技巧评分低（高）的模式模拟的SST、SSS和降水异常值的中心位置偏西（偏东）,引起中心位置偏移的原因与模式模拟赤道太平洋冷舌的位置有关,即赤道太平洋冷舌西伸显著,导致发生El Ni?o时SST异常变暖西伸显著,进而使得降水异常和SSS异常位置偏西。同时,技巧评分低的模式还易出现向东南延伸的负SSS异常,原因是双赤道辐合带的东南分支过于明显,即降水偏多,导致SSS偏淡。SSS变化会影响ENSO的发生发展。因此,探讨两类El Ni?o盐度分布的差异及相关物理场的关系,为提高模式的气候模拟和预测提供有益的借鉴。     

CMIP5多模式模拟两类El Ni(n)o海表盐度分布及与降水的关系

利用CMIP5提供的25个工业革命前控制试验(piControl)模拟数据评估了热带太平洋两类El Ni(n)o(即东部EP和中部CP型El Ni(n)o)的海表盐度(SSS)空间结构差异及其与海表温度(SST)和降水的关系.结果表明:(1)大部分模式能够模拟出EP和CP型空间结构,两类El Ni(n)o中的SST、降水和SSS的空间技巧评分依次减小,其中,EP型SST和降水水平分布的模拟能力强于CP型,SSS则为CP型强于EP型,CP型模拟的SST、SSS和降水异常中心位置较EP型偏西且强度偏弱;(2) CP型SST、降水和SSS三者空间分布的线性一致性比EP型好,即在CP型中,SST影响降水,进而影响SSS,同时SSS对SST调制的反馈机制较显著,而对于EP型,由于海洋水平平流和非局地效应等因素,使得SST与SSS空间对应较差;(3)依据多模式模拟的SSS空间技巧评分高低将CMIP5模式分为两类,技巧评分低(高)的模式模拟的SST、SSS和降水异常值的中心位置偏西(偏东),引起中心位置偏移的原因与模式模拟赤道太平洋冷舌的位置有关,即赤道太平洋冷舌西伸显著,导致发生El Ni(n)o时SST异常变暖西伸显著,进而使得降水异常和SSS异常位置偏西.同时,技巧评分低的模式还易出现向东南延伸的负SSS异常,原因是双赤道辐合带的东南分支过于明显,即降水偏多,导致SSS偏淡.SSS变化会影响ENSO的发生发展.因此,探讨两类El Ni(n)o盐度分布的差异及相关物理场的关系,为提高模式的气候模拟和预测提供有益的借鉴.     

Nonlinearity Modulating Intensities and Spatial Structures of Central Pacific and Eastern Pacific El Nio Events

This paper compares data from linearized and nonlinear Zebiak–Cane model, as constrained by observed sea surface temperature anomaly(SSTA), in simulating central Pacific(CP) and eastern Pacific(EP) El Nio. The difference between the temperature advections(determined by subtracting those of the linearized model from those of the nonlinear model),referred to here as the nonlinearly induced temperature advection change(NTA), is analyzed. The results demonstrate that the NTA records warming in the central equatorial Pacific during CP El Nio and makes fewer contributions to the structural distinctions of the CP El Nio, whereas it records warming in the eastern equatorial Pacific during EP El Nio, and thus significantly promotes EP El Nio during El Nio–type selection. The NTA for CP and EP El Nio varies in its amplitude,and is smaller in CP El Nio than it is in EP El Nio. These results demonstrate that CP El Nio are weakly modulated by small intensities of NTA, and may be controlled by weak nonlinearity; whereas, EP El Nio are significantly enhanced by large amplitudes of NTA, and are therefore likely to be modulated by relatively strong nonlinearity. These data could explain why CP El Nio are weaker than EP El Nio. Because the NTA for CP and EP El Nio differs in spatial structures and intensities, as well as their roles within different El Nio modes, the diversity of El Nio may be closely related to changes in the nonlinear characteristics of the tropical Pacific.     

Observed freshening and warming of the western Pacific Warm Pool

Trends in observed sea surface salinity (SSS) and temperature are analyzed for the tropical Pacific during 1955–2003. Since 1955, the western Pacific Warm Pool has significantly warmed and freshened, whereas SSS has been increasing in the western Coral Sea and part of the subtropical ocean. Waters warmer than 28.5°C warmed on average by 0.29°C, and freshened by 0.34 pss per 50 years. Our study also indicates a significant horizontal extension of the warm and fresh surface waters, an expansion of the warm waters volume, and a notable eastward extension of the SSS fronts located on the equator and under the South Pacific Convergence Zone. Mixed layer depth changes examined along 137°E and 165°E are complex, but suggest an increase in the equatorial barrier layer thickness. Our study also reveals consistency between observed SSS trends and a mean hydrological cycle increase inferred from Clausius–Clapeyron scaling, as predicted under global warming scenarios. Possible implications of these changes for ocean–atmosphere interactions and El Niño events are discussed.     

Modulation of El Nino-Southern Oscillation by Freshwater Flux and Salinity Variability in the Tropical Pacific

The El Nin o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is modulated by many factors; most previous studies have emphasized the roles of wind stress and heat flux in the tropical Pacific. Freshwater flux (FWF) is another environmental forcing to the ocean; its effect and the related ocean salinity variability in the ENSO region have been of increased interest recently. Currently, accurate quantifications of the FWF roles in the climate remain challenging; the related observations and coupled ocean-atmosphere modeling involve large elements of uncertainty. In this study, we utilized satellite-based data to represent FWF-induced feedback in the tropical Pacific climate system; we then incorporated these data into a hybrid coupled ocean-atmosphere model (HCM) to quantify its effects on ENSO. A new mechanism was revealed by which interannual FWF forcing modulates ENSO in a significant way. As a direct forcing, FWF exerts a significant influence on the ocean through sea surface salinity (SSS) and buoyancy flux (Q B ) in the western-central tropical Pacific. The SSS perturbations directly induced by ENSO-related interannual FWF variability affect the stability and mixing in the upper ocean. At the same time, the ENSO-induced FWF has a compensating effect on heat flux, acting to reduce interannual Q B variability during ENSO cycles. These FWF-induced processes in the ocean tend to modulate the vertical mixing and entrainment in the upper ocean, enhancing cooling during La Nin a and enhancing warming during El Nin o, respectively. The interannual FWF forcing-induced positive feedback acts to enhance ENSO amplitude and lengthen its time scales in the tropical Pacific coupled climate system.     

Evaluation of the tropical variability from the Beijing Climate Center’s real-time operational global Ocean Data Assimilation System

The second-generation Global Ocean Data Assimilation System of the Beijing Climate Center(BCC_GODAS2.0) has been run daily in a pre-operational mode.It spans the period 1990 to the present day.The goal of this paper is to introduce the main components and to evaluate BCC_GODAS2.0 for the user community.BCC_GODAS2.0 consists of an observational data preprocess,ocean data quality control system,a three-dimensional variational(3DVAR) data assimilation,and global ocean circulation model[Modular Ocean Model 4(MOM4)].MOM4 is driven by six-hourly fluxes from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction.Satellite altimetry data,SST,and in-situ temperature and salinity data are assimilated in real time.The monthly results from the BCC_GODAS2.0 reanalysis are compared and assessed with observations for 1990-2011.The climatology of the mixed layer depth of BCC-GODAS2.0 is generally in agreement with that of World Ocean Atlas 2001.The modeled sea level variations in the tropical Pacific are consistent with observations from satellite altimetry on interannual to decadal time scales.Performances in predicting variations in the SST using BCC_GODAS2.0 are evaluated.The standard deviation of the SST in BCC-GODAS2.0 agrees well with observations in the tropical Pacific.BCC-GODAS2.0 is able to capture the main features of E1 Nino Modoki I and Modoki Ⅱ,which have different impacts on rainfall in southern China.In addition,the relationships between the Indian Ocean and the two types of E1 Nino Modoki are also reproduced.     

Indian Ocean sea surface salinity variations in a coupled model

The variability of the sea surface salinity (SSS) in the Indian Ocean is studied using a 100-year control simulation of the Community Climate System Model (CCSM 2.0). The monsoon-driven seasonal SSS pattern in the Indian Ocean, marked by low salinity in the east and high salinity in the west, is captured by the model. The model overestimates runoff into the Bay of Bengal due to higher rainfall over the Himalayan–Tibetan regions which drain into the Bay of Bengal through Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers. The outflow of low-salinity water from the Bay of Bengal is too strong in the model. Consequently, the model Indian Ocean SSS is about 1 less than that seen in the climatology. The seasonal Indian Ocean salt balance obtained from the model is consistent with the analysis from climatological data sets. During summer, the large freshwater input into the Bay of Bengal and its redistribution decide the spatial pattern of salinity tendency. During winter, horizontal advection is the dominant contributor to the tendency term. The interannual variability of the SSS in the Indian Ocean is about five times larger than that in coupled model simulations of the North Atlantic Ocean. Regions of large interannual standard deviations are located near river mouths in the Bay of Bengal and in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean. Both freshwater input into the ocean and advection of this anomalous flux are responsible for the generation of these anomalies. The model simulates 20 significant Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events and during IOD years large salinity anomalies appear in the equatorial Indian Ocean. The anomalies exist as two zonal bands: negative salinity anomalies to the north of the equator and positive to the south. The SSS anomalies for the years in which IOD is not present and for ENSO years are much weaker than during IOD years. Significant interannual SSS anomalies appear in the Indian Ocean only during IOD years.     

Interannual Salinity Variability in the Tropical Pacific in CMIP5 Simulations

Salinity variability and its causes in the tropical Pacific are analyzed using observations, reanalysis products and model simulations. The mixed-layer salinity(MLS) budget analyses from observations and reanalysis products indicate that its interannual evolution is closely related to ENSO and is predominantly governed by surface forcing and surface advection in the western-central equatorial Pacific. It is found that the observed MLS tendency leads Nin?o3.4 by about 12 months due to the effect of negative freshwater flux(evaporation minus precipitation). These observation-based analyses are used to evaluate the corresponding simulation using GFDL-ESM2 M. It is evident that the model can simulate the spatiotemporal variations of MLS with some discrepancies compared to observations. In the warm pool of the equatorial Pacific the MLS tendency in the model is sensitive to ocean dynamics, however model biases cause the tendency to be underestimated. In particular, the freshwater flux is overestimated while the ocean surface zonal current and vertical velocity at the base of the mixed layer are underestimated. Due to model biases in representing the related physics, the effects of surface forcing on the simulated MLS budget are overestimated and those of subsurface and surface advection are relatively weak. Due to weaker surface advection and subsurface forcing than observed, the simulated compensations for surface forcing are suppressed, and the simulated MLS tendency that leads Nin?o3.4 by 8–10 months, which is shorter than the observed lead time. These results are useful for the interpretation of observational analyses and other model simulations in the tropical Pacific.     

Interannual variability of the sea surface salinity and its related freshwater flux in the tropical Pacific: A comparison of CMIP5 and CMIP6

This paper assesses the interannual variabilities of simulated sea surface salinity (SSS) and freshwater flux (FWF) in the tropical Pacific from phases 5 and 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5 and CMIP6). The authors focus on comparing the simulated SSS and FWF responses to El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) from two generations of models developed by the same group. The results show that CMIP5 and CMIP6 models can perform well in simulating the spatial distributions of the SSS and FWF responses associated with ENSO, as well as their relationship. It is found that most CMIP6 models have improved in simulating the geographical distribution of the SSS and FWF interannual variability in the tropical Pacific compared to CMIP5 models. In particular, CMIP6 models have corrected the underestimation of the spatial relationship of the FWF and SSS variability with ENSO in the central-western Pacific. In addition, CMIP6 models outperform CMIP5 models in simulating the FWF interannual variability (spatial distribution and intensity) in the tropical Pacific. However, as a whole, CMIP6 models do not show improved skill scores for SSS interannual variability, which is due to their overestimation of the intensity in some models. Large uncertainties exist in simulating the interannual variability of SSS among CMIP5 and CMIP6 models and some improvements with respect to physical processes are needed.摘要通过比较CMIP5和CMIP6来自同一个单位两代模式模拟, 表明CMIP5和CMIP6均能较好地模拟出热带太平洋的海表盐度 (SSS) 和淡水通量 (FWF) 对ENSO响应的分布及其响应间的关系. 与CMIP5模式相比, 大部份CMIP6模式模拟的SSS和FWF年际变化分布均呈现改进, 特别是纠正了较低的中西太平洋SSS和FWF变化的空间关系. 但是, 整体上, CMIP6模式模拟的SSS年际变化技巧没有提高, 与SSS年际变率的强度被高估有关. CMIP5和CMIP6模式模拟SSS的年际变化还存在较大的不确定性, 在物理方面需要改进.     

Factors that affect the amplitude of El Nino in global coupled climate models

Historically, El Nino-like events simulated in global coupled climate models have had reduced amplitude compared to observations. Here, El Nino-like phenomena are compared in ten sensitivity experiments using two recent global coupled models. These models have various combinations of horizontal and vertical ocean resolution, ocean physics, and atmospheric model resolution. It is demonstrated that the lower the value of the ocean background vertical diffusivity, the greater the amplitude of El Nino variability which is related primarily to a sharper equatorial thermocline. Among models with low background vertical diffusivity, stronger equatorial zonal wind stress is associated with relatively higher amplitude El Nino variability along with more realistic east–west sea surface temperature (SST) gradient along the equator. The SST seasonal cycle in the eastern tropical Pacific has too much of a semiannual component with a double intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in all experiments, and thus does not affect, nor is it affected by, the amplitude of El Nino variability. Systematic errors affecting the spatial variability of El Nino in the experiments are characterized by the eastern equatorial Pacific cold tongue regime extending too far westward into the warm pool. The time scales of interannual variability (as represented by time series of Nino3 SSTs) show significant power in the 3–4 year ENSO band and 2–2.5 year tropospheric biennial oscillation (TBO) band in the model experiments. The TBO periods in the models agree well with the observations, while the ENSO periods are near the short end of the range of 3–6 years observed during the period 1950–94. The close association between interannual variability of equatorial eastern Pacific SSTs and large-scale SST patterns is represented by significant correlations between Nino3 time series and the PC time series of the first EOFs of near-global SSTs in the models and observations. Received: 17 April 2000 / Accepted: 17 August 2000     

El Ni?o事件发生和消亡中热带太平洋纬向风应力的动力作用 I. 资料诊断和理论分析

通过资料分析,研究了发生在热带西太平洋海表面西风或东风应力异常与El Ni?o事件的关系。分析结果表明,对应着El Ni?o事件从发生到消亡的过程,热带西太平洋纬向风应力存在着从西风应力异常到东风应力异常的变化,并且在这个过程中,西风应力异常向东传,东风应力异常紧接其后也向东传。本文还根据观测资料的分析结果建立了理想风应力,并利用简单热带海洋模式,对热带西太平洋纬向风应力异常及其东传在ENSO循环中的作用进行了动力学分析,指出了它们在El Ni?o事件发生和消亡中起着重要的作用。西风应力异常通过激发出海洋中东传的暖Kelvin波及其在大洋东边界反射产生的暖Rossby波、以及西风应力异常本身东传到赤道东太平洋,引起正的海洋混合层扰动厚度异常,导致了El Ni?o事件的发生;而异常东风应力则通过激发出东传的冷Kelvin波及其在大洋东边界反射产生的冷Rossby波、以及东风应力异常本身东传到赤道东太平洋,引起负的海洋混合层扰动厚度异常,导致了El Ni?o事件的消亡。对于热带西太平洋上风应力异常的形式是东部为异常西风应力而其西部为异常东风应力,并且它们同时向东传时,则大洋东部混合层厚度对异常风应力的响应随异常东风和西风应力的强度不同而不同,它们强度的相对大小对El Ni?o的持续时间具有重要的作用。     

Parallel Comparison of the 1982/83,1997/98 and 2015/16 Super El Nios and Their Effects on the Extratropical Stratosphere

This study uses multiple sea surface temperature(SST) datasets to perform a parallel comparison of three super El Ni os and their effects on the stratosphere. The results show that, different from ordinary El Ni os, warm SST anomalies appear earliest in the western tropical Pacific and precede the super El Ni o peak by more than 18 months. In the previous winter,relative to the mature phase of El Ni o, as a precursor, North Pacific Oscillation-like circulation anomalies are observed. A Pacific–North America(PNA) teleconnection appears in the extratropical troposphere during the mature phase, in spite of the subtle differences between the intensities, as well as the zonal position, of the PNA lobes. Related to the negative rainfall response over the tropical Indian Ocean, the PNA teleconnection in the winter of 1997/98 is the strongest among the three super El Ni os. The northern winter stratosphere shows large anomalies in the polar cap temperature and the circumpolar westerly, if the interferences from other factors are linearly filtered from the circulation data. Associated with the positive PNA response in a super El Ni o winter, positive polar cap temperature anomalies and circumpolar easterly anomalies,though different in timing, are also observed in the mature winters of the three super El Ni os. The stratospheric polar vortex in the next winter relative to the 1982/83 and 1997/98 events is also anomalously weaker and warmer, and the stratospheric circulation conditions remain to be seen in the coming winter following the mature phase of the 2015/16 event.     

太平洋混合层厚度(dml)年际异常的初步分析

用太平洋区域30a逐月混合层厚度(d_ml)及浅层海温(T_s)距平资料,分析了20°S以北太平洋区域d_ml年际变率的地理分布和季节变化,得到两个纬向d_ml高变率带,它们分别位于北太平洋(45°N附近)和赤道中、西太平洋。重点分析了赤道太平洋d_ml高变率带,并对其上混合层气候位置、d_ml年际异常与ElNino事件关系及伴随强ElNino事件的d_ml正异常东传等作了初步分析。     

ENSO Predictions in an Intermediate Coupled Model Influenced by Removing Initial Condition Errors in Sensitive Areas: A Target Observation Perspective

Previous studies indicate that ENSO predictions are particularly sensitive to the initial conditions in some key areas (so-called "sensitive areas"). And yet, few studies have quantified improvements in prediction skill in the context of an optimal observing system. In this study, the impact on prediction skill is explored using an intermediate coupled model in which errors in initial conditions formed to make ENSO predictions are removed in certain areas. Based on ideal observing system simulation experiments, the importance of various observational networks on improvement of El Niño prediction skill is examined. The results indicate that the initial states in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific are important to improve El Niño prediction skill effectively. When removing the initial condition errors in the central equatorial Pacific, ENSO prediction errors can be reduced by 25%. Furthermore, combinations of various subregions are considered to demonstrate the efficiency on ENSO prediction skill. Particularly, seasonally varying observational networks are suggested to improve the prediction skill more effectively. For example, in addition to observing in the central equatorial Pacific and its north throughout the year, increasing observations in the eastern equatorial Pacific during April to October is crucially important, which can improve the prediction accuracy by 62%. These results also demonstrate the effectiveness of the conditional nonlinear optimal perturbation approach on detecting sensitive areas for target observations.     

Impact of the equatorial Atlantic sea surface temperature on the tropical Pacific in a CGCM

Many coupled general circulation models (CGCMs) suffer from serious model bias in the zonal gradient of sea surface temperature (SST) in the equatorial Atlantic. The bias of the equatorial Atlantic SST (EASST) may affect the interannual variability of the equatorial Atlantic, which in turn may influence the state of the tropical Pacific. In this paper we investigate the impact of the bias and the interannual variability of the EASST on the tropical Pacific in a CGCM. To determine the impact of the interannual variability of the EASST on the tropical Pacific, we compare a run in a fully coupled mode (CTL run) and a run in which the EASST is nudged toward the climatological monthly mean of the SST in the CTL run, but full air-sea coupling is allowed elsewhere (AT_m run). We find that, when the interannual variability of the EASST is excluded, the thermocline depth in the eastern equatorial Pacific is deepened, and the amplitude of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation is reduced by 30 % compared to the CTL run. The impact of the bias of the EASST on the tropical Pacific is investigated by comparing the AT_m run and a run in which the EASST is nudged toward the observed climatological monthly mean SST (AT_o run). It is found that, when the bias of the EASST is removed (i.e. AT_o run), the Gill–Matsuno type response to the warm SST anomalies in the western equatorial Atlantic induces low-level cyclonic anomalies in the eastern South Pacific, which leads to a deeper thermocline and colder SST in the South Pacific as compared to AT_m. The colder SST in the South Pacific reduces the precipitation along the South Pacific convergence zone. Our results of the model experiments demonstrate the importance of the EASST to the tropical Pacific climate.