Mobility and settlement system integration in the USSR

Recent Soviet research on commuting in the USSR is reviewed in the light of the General Strategy for a System of Settlement in the USSR, adopted in 1976. It is noted that rural-urban commuting to work has grown rapidly since 1975, particularly in the European parts of the USSR, and that most commuters prefer to live in rural or suburban areas within easy access of an urban center rather than in the central city itself.     

The basic framework of settlement of the USSR: origins and configuration

The concept of a basic framework of settlement consisting of the largest cities in the USSR is developed. "The present framework shaped by cities over 100,000 and by cities over 500,000 is analyzed in terms of clusters of concentration and outlying centers. Changes in the framework over time are discussed in terms of varying sets of the 50 largest cities in various stages over the last 80 years."     

Urban settlement size trends in the former USSR: 1970-1989

"Based upon recently published data, this paper investigates urban settlement size trends in the former USSR and its republics during the intercensal periods of 1970-1979 and 1979-1989. Results indicate that although a trend toward largeness of the Soviet urban hierarchy continues, a slowing in this direction has occurred. Among republics, all had an increasing trend towards largeness on at least one and usually all three summary measures of urban settlement size structure. The RSFSR [Russia] and Armenia especially consistently evidenced a relatively high degree of largeness, while the former Baltic republics generally revealed a relative smallness."     

Development of the settlement system in the Lithuanian SSR: results,problems, and prospects

"The authors analyze the factors, results, problems, and prospects of the development of a system of settlement in the Lithuanian SSR, a laboratory of sorts for settlement policy in the Soviet Union. Particular attention is devoted to the formation of an inter-rayon settlement system integrating urban and rural settlements. Several methodological and conceptual approaches to the study of settlement systems are examined in this context."     

Demographic characteristics of settlement and a demogeographic regionalization of the USSR

"An approach to the delimitation of demogeographic regions in the USSR is proposed and a network of 27 regions is developed and mapped." Geographical differences in population reproduction, structure, and migration at various territorial levels are examined. Data are provided on changes in urban population between 1959 and 1979; total, urban, and rural population growth during that period; total and rural population density in 1979; and rates of natural increase as of 1960, 1965, 1970, and 1974.     

Contemporary problems of migration of the population of the USSR

"The authors...discuss--on the basis of census statistics and poll results--the three basic trends of Soviet migrational processes (movement to the eastern and northern regions of new development from the country's densely settled regions, mainly central European Russia; constant and sizable rural-to-urban movement; and heavy movement into the country's largest cities and republic and oblast centers), as well as the three main migrational problems (stabilization of the rural population of central European Russia; acclimatization of new settlers in the eastern regions; and activization of the native inhabitants of Central Asia)."     

Linking censuses through time: problems and solutions

This paper reviews the difficulties encountered when attempting to study social change by comparing data from successive censuses, and describes a system designed to provide integrated online access to data from the 1971, 1981 and 1991 Censuses in Great Britain at http://census.ac.uk/cdu/lct/.     

Population distribution problems and policies in Asia

"The main purposes of this paper are (1) to identify the primary population distribution problems in Asia, and (2) to identify the range of explicit population policy instruments or packages designed to alleviate or solve existing maldistribution. As a corollary to these main goals, attempts are made to classify types of spatial population problems and policies and to compare them across nations. Additionally, a qualitative analysis is made to assess the effectiveness of population distribution policies in those cases where there are reasonable data available."     

环嵩山地区史前聚落分布时空模式研究

本文利用GIS空间分析、模型分析,按照裴李岗（9000-7000 aBP）、仰韶（7000-5000 aBP）、龙山（5000-4000 aBP）、夏商（4000-3000 aBP）4个时期对环嵩山地区史前（9000-3000 aBP）聚落的空间分布形态、演化特征及其形成机制进行研究与分析,提出了一套适应于史前聚落时空分布模式研究的分析方法。结果表明：① 环嵩山地区裴李岗、仰韶、龙山、夏商4个时期史前聚落均具有集聚型空间分布特征,其中裴李岗和夏商时期聚落分别具有2个集聚中心,仰韶和龙山时期聚落分别具有3个集聚中心;② 区域史前聚落空间分布重心具有由南向北迁移的特征。裴李岗时期聚落以分布于南部地区为主,仰韶聚落分布重心开始向北部迁移,这种态势在龙山时期仍在持续。夏商时期,聚落分布形成了以嵩山北部为重心的东西分异特征;③ 史前聚落空间分布总体形态及演化特征的形成与自然环境条件与人类文化演进关系密切。以狩（渔）猎采集为主的经济形态使得裴李岗聚落主要分布于近山丘陵岗地与近水高台地两种地貌单元。全新世中期温暖湿润的气候条件对于南部平原地区影响较大,近山地区地势较高、顶面平坦的地貌单元成为仰韶、龙山时期聚落营建与开展农业生产理想的场所。夏商时期社会形态的复杂化使得聚落具有围绕都邑性中心聚落集中分布的趋势,嵩山北部也成为聚落分布的核心区域。     

基于指数模型的郑州—洛阳地区史前聚落遗址空间分布

为了探究郑州—洛阳地区史前人类聚落遗址空间分布规律,在GIS 支持下,主要使用高程分析、坡度坡向分析和缓冲区分析等空间数据分析方法,分别获取4个史前文化时期聚落遗址分布与高程、坡度、坡向、离水距离4种环境因子的关系。在此基础上构造适宜性指数评价系统,建立聚落遗址指数模型,将模型结果与遗址具体分布情况进行比较,阐述遗址分布的特征和原因,并据此解读史前人地关系演变。研究结果表明:① 史前人类遗址选址对上述4 因子具有强烈的选择倾向:地势较低的地区更有利于人类生活、交通和农作物种植;坡度较小的平原地带受地表径流势能作用相对较小,有利于建造房屋和抵御自然灾害;阳坡(朝南)不仅可在一定程度上抵挡风寒,也适宜植被和作物生长,有利于人类获得更多的生产、生活资料;而河流湖泊则可为人类提供充足的水源。② 在4个史前文化时期中,裴李岗时期的人类生存能力较弱,对环境依赖性较强,为谋求生存,必须尽可能占据环境最优区域;在仰韶前期和仰韶后期,人类适应和改造自然的能力逐步提高,不仅能够选择条件较优的居住点,还开始扩展新的生存领域;龙山时期人类按自由意志活动的能力进一步增强,体现在遗址数量大幅增长,并开始出现社会分化现象,部分人群凭借某种特权得以优先占据条件最好的区域。     

The environmental impact of small-scale gold mining in Ghana: identifying problems and possible solutions

This paper examines the environmental impacts of small-scale gold mining in Ghana, and prescribes a series of recommendations for improving environmental performance in the industry. Since the enactment of the Small Scale Gold Mining Law in 1989, which effectively legalized small-scale gold mining in the country, industrial operations, collectively, have made important contributions to national gold output, foreign exchange earnings and employment. Accompanying this pattern of socio-economic growth, however, have been increased environmental complications – namely, mercury pollution and land degradation. The Ghanaian Minerals Commission has been burdened with most of the jurisdictional responsibilities related to small-scale mining, but with a staff of only 35–40 people working with a pool of highly obsolete research resources, it is clearly incapable of facilitating sufficient environmental improvement on its own. It is concluded that marked environmental improvements can only be achieved if: (1) assistance is provided to the Minerals Commission from local governmental bodies and academic units; (2) industry-specific environmental management tools and strategies are designed and implemented; (3) concerted effort is made to prospect for deposits suitable for small-scale gold mining, a key to preventing unnecessary exploration; and (4) a nation-wide industrial mercury study is commissioned, and a mercury retorting programme is implemented.     

Differences in language retention between males and females in the USSR, 1970

"Among certain ethnic groups in the USSR, males and females have different levels of retention of the native language. Male and female levels vary inside and outside the home territory depending on the general strength of the language, ethnic rights in the place of residence, and migrant versus non-migrant status. Additional distinctions correspond to cultural divisions, principally Moslem versus non-Moslem."     

Regional trends in crude birth,death, and natural increase rates in Russia and the USSR: 1897-1989

"This paper establishes and discusses briefly regional patterns and trends in crude birth, death, and natural increase rates in Russia and the USSR from the turn of the century to 1989. The study is based on a comparable regional framework and placed in the context of the demographic transition theory. It discusses sources, collection, and quality of data, as well as necessary estimating procedures. An attempt also is made to examine briefly regional age-standardized rates."     

Rapidly growing towns in the former USSR and Russia, 1970-1993

"Using urban places of 15,000 or more inhabitants as its point of reference, this paper identifies and investigates the most rapidly growing towns and cities of the USSR during the recent intercensal periods of 1970-79 and 1979-89. Rapidly growing towns are defined as towns that grew by at least 50 percent overall for the intercensal period and at a rate of equal to or exceeding 4.1 percent annually. In addition, a category of 'doubling towns' is investigated, defined as towns that increased in population by at least 100 percent (or 6.3 percent or more annually). Special attention is devoted to the geographical aspects, economic functions, and size characteristics of the towns involved. Comparisons with 1959-70, an overall examination from 1959-89, and an update for contemporary Russia during 1989-93 also are undertaken."     

Geographical and economic determinants of interregional migration in the USSR, 1968-1985

"Interregional migration results in a regional redistribution of labor, essential under the current mismatch between the locations of labor and of natural resources and industrial capacity in the USSR. This study focuses on economic and geographical determinants of destination choice of migrants from 1968 through 1985. Particular emphasis is placed upon the relative effects of economic variables and quality of life factors and on the effect of gravity variables (i.e., distance and population size). The statistically significant results for the economic and gravity variables indicate the appropriateness of using Western theories to analyze migration in the Soviet context."