Complexity gradients in the Yilgarn Craton: Fundamental controls on crustal-scale fluid flow and the formation of world-class orogenic-gold deposits

Fractal-dimension analysis is an effective means of quantifying complex map patterns of structures and lithological contacts, which are conduits for hydrothermal fluid flow during the formation of orogenic-gold deposits. In this study, fractal dimensions, calculated on a 10 km grid across a geologic map of the Yilgarn Craton of uniform data quality, highlight relationships between geologic complexity and the location and size of Archaean orogenic-gold deposits. In the Kalgoorlie Terrane and Laverton Tectonic Zone, the largest gold deposits occur along steep gradients defined by fractal-dimension values. These steep gradients in the greenstone belts occur between massive sedimentary rock sequences of low complexity, and volcanic and intrusive rock units with more complex map patterns. The formation of world-class orogenic-gold deposits requires that hydrothermal fluids become focused from a large volume of well-connected rocks at depth, towards narrow, high-permeability zones near the location of deposit formation. Connectivity is indirectly related to permeability, and the degree of connectivity is related to the density and orientation of fluid pathways, which are quantified in map patterns using fractal-dimension analysis. Thus, fractal dimensions are a measure of the potential for increased connectivity and the likelihood of increased permeability. Greater complexity, as measured by larger fractal dimensions, implies that a certain area has the potential to produce more interconnected pathways, or zones of high connectivity. Therefore, the steep complexity gradients defined in the Kalgoorlie Terrane and Laverton Tectonic Zone correspond to areas that focused large volumes of hydrothermal fluid and enhanced the potential for significant gold mineralisation. Fractal-dimension analysis thus provides a link between empirical map features and the processes that have enhanced hydrothermal fluid flow and resulted in the formation of larger orogenic-gold deposits.     

Review and classification of structural controls on fluid flow during regional metamorphism

Mechanisms for kilometre-scale, open-system fluid flow during regional metamorphism remain problematic. Debate also continues over the degree of fluid flow channellization during regional metamorphism, and the mechanisms for pervasive fluid flow at depth. The requirements for pervasive long-distance fluid flow are an interconnected porosity and a large regional gradient in fluid pressure and hydraulic head (thermally or structurally controlled) that dominates over local perturbations in hydraulic head due to deformation. In contrast, dynamic or transient porosity interconnection and fluid flow accompanying deformation of heterogeneous rock suites should result in moderately to strongly channellized flow at a range of scales, of which there are many examples in the literature. Classification of fluid flow types based on scale and degree of equilibration between fluid and rock, wallrock permeability, and mode of fluid transport contributes to an understanding of key factors that control fluid flow. Closed-system fluid behaviour, with restricted fluid flow in microcracks or cracks and limited fluid–rock interaction, occurs over a range of strains and crustal depths, but requires low permeabilities and/or small fluid fluxes. Long-distance, open-system fluid flow in channels is favoured in heterogeneous rocks at high strains, moderate (but variable) permeabilities, and moderate to high fluid fluxes. Long-distance, broad, pervasive fluid flow during regional metamorphism requires that the rocks are not accumulating high strains and have high permeabilities, low permeability contrasts, and high fluid fluxes. The ideal situation for such fluid flow is in situations where the rocks are undergoing stress relaxation immediately after a major deformation phase. In the mid-crust, fairly specific conditions are thus required for pervasive fluid flow. During active orogenesis, structurally controlled fluid flow (with focused open systems surrounding regions of closed-system behaviour) predominates in most, but not all, regional metamorphic situations, at a range of scales.     

Effects of fracture lineaments and in-situ rock stresses on groundwater flow in hard rocks: a case study from Sunnfjord, western Norway

Systematic field mapping of fracture lineaments observed on aerial photographs shows that almost all of these structures are positively correlated with zones of high macroscopic and mesoscopic fracture frequencies compared with the surroundings. The lineaments are subdivided into zones with different characteristics: (1) a central zone with fault rocks, high fracture frequency and connectivity but commonly with mineral sealed fractures, and (2) a damage zone divided into a proximal zone with a high fracture frequency of lineament parallel, non-mineralized and interconnected fractures, grading into a distal zone with lower fracture frequencies and which is transitional to the surrounding areas with general background fracturing. To examine the possible relations between lineament architecture and in-situ rock stress on groundwater flow, the geological fieldwork was followed up by in-situ stress measurements and test boreholes at selected sites. Geophysical well logging added valuable information about fracture distribution and fracture flow at depths. Based on the studies of in-situ stresses as well as the lineaments and associated fracture systems presented above, two working hypotheses for groundwater flow were formulated: (i) In areas with a general background fracturing and in the distal zone of lineaments, groundwater flow will mainly occur along fractures parallel with the largest in-situ rock stress, unless fractures are critically loaded or reactivated as shear fractures at angles around 30° to σ_H; (ii) In the influence area of lineaments, the largest potential for groundwater abstraction is in the proximal zone, where there is a high fracture frequency and connectivity with negligible fracture fillings. The testing of the two hypotheses does not give a clear and unequivocal answer in support of the two assumptions about groundwater flow in the study area. But most of the observed data are in agreement with the predictions from the models, and can be explained by the action of the present stress field on pre-existing fractures.     

Fault zone characteristics,fracture systems and permeability implications of Middle Triassic Muschelkalk in Southwest Germany

Fault zone structure and lithology affect permeability of Triassic Muschelkalk limestone-marl-alternations in Southwest Germany, a region characterized by a complex tectonic history. Field studies of eight fault zones provide insights into fracture system parameters (orientation, density, aperture, connectivity, vertical extension) within fault zone units (fault core, damage zone). Results show decreasing fracture lengths with distances to the fault cores in well-developed damage zones. Fracture connectivity at fracture tips is enhanced in proximity to the slip surfaces, particularly caused by shorter fractures. Different mechanical properties of limestone and marl layers obviously affect fracture propagation and thus fracture system connectivity and permeability. Fracture apertures are largest parallel and subparallel to fault zones and prominent regional structures (e.g., Upper Rhine Graben) leading to enhanced fracture-induced permeabilities. Mineralized fractures and mineralizations in fault cores indicate past fluid flow. Permeability is increased by the development of hydraulically active pathways across several beds (non-stratabound fractures) to a higher degree than by the formation of fractures interconnected at fracture tips. We conclude that there is an increase of interconnected fractures and fracture densities in proximity to the fault cores. This is particularly clear in more homogenous rocks. The results help to better understand permeability in Muschelkalk rocks.     

构造应力对裂缝形成与流体流动的影响

裂缝是低渗透储层流体流动的主要通道,控制了低渗透油气藏的渗流系统。低渗透储层裂缝的形成与流体密切相关,高流体压力引起岩石内部的有效正应力下降,导致岩石剪切破裂强度下降,使岩石容易产生裂缝。高孔隙流体压力还造成某一点的应力摩尔圆向左移动,可以使其最小主应力(σ3)由压应力状态变成拉张应力状态,从而在岩石中形成拉张裂缝。裂缝的渗透性受现今应力场的影响,通常与现今应力场最大主压应力近平行分布的裂缝呈拉张状态,连通性好,开度大,渗透率高,是主渗透裂缝方向。构造应力对沉积盆地流体流动的影响主要表现在三个方面:(1)构造应力导致的岩石变形,不仅提供了流体流动的通道,而且还改变了岩石的渗透性能;(2)在构造强烈活动时期,构造应力的快速变化是流体流动的重要驱动力;(3)岩石中应力状态影响多孔介质的有效应力,从而影响介质中的渗流场。当作用在含流体介质上的构造应力发生改变时,岩石孔隙体积变小,构造应力首先由岩石的骨架来承担;当岩石孔隙体积减小到一定程度时,构造应力由孔隙流体来承担,从而影响岩层渗流场的变化。     

Numerical Simulation of 3D Hydraulic Fracturing Based on an Improved Flow-Stress-Damage Model and a Parallel FEM Technique

The failure mechanism of hydraulic fractures in heterogeneous geological materials is an important topic in mining and petroleum engineering. A three-dimensional (3D) finite element model that considers the coupled effects of seepage, damage, and the stress field is introduced. This model is based on a previously developed two-dimensional (2D) version of the model (RFPA2D-Rock Failure Process Analysis). The RFPA3D-Parallel model is developed using a parallel finite element method with a message-passing interface library. The constitutive law of this model considers strength and stiffness degradation, stress-dependent permeability for the pre-peak stage, and deformation-dependent permeability for the post-peak stage. Using this model, 3D modelling of progressive failure and associated fluid flow in rock are conducted and used to investigate the hydro-mechanical response of rock samples at laboratory scale. The responses investigated are the axial stress–axial strain together with permeability evolution and fracture patterns at various stages of loading. Then, the hydraulic fracturing process inside a rock specimen is numerically simulated. Three coupled processes are considered: (1) mechanical deformation of the solid medium induced by the fluid pressure acting on the fracture surfaces and the rock skeleton, (2) fluid flow within the fracture, and (3) propagation of the fracture. The numerically simulated results show that the fractures from a vertical wellbore propagate in the maximum principal stress direction without branching, turning, and twisting in the case of a large difference in the magnitude of the far-field stresses. Otherwise, the fracture initiates in a non-preferred direction and plane then turns and twists during propagation to become aligned with the preferred direction and plane. This pattern of fracturing is common when the rock formation contains multiple layers with different material properties. In addition, local heterogeneity of the rock matrix and macro-scale stress fluctuations due to the variability of material properties can cause the branching, turning, and twisting of fractures.     

Contact mechanism of a rock fracture subjected to normal loading and its impact on fast closure behavior during initial stage of fluid flow experiment

Fast closure of rock fractures has been commonly observed in the initial stage of fluid flow experiments at environmental temperatures under low or moderate normal stresses. To fully understand the mechanisms that drive this fast closure, the evolution of local stresses acting on contacting asperities on the fracture surfaces prior to fluid flow tests needs to be evaluated. In this study, we modeled numerically the asperity deformation and failure processes during initial normal loading, by adopting both elastic and elastic–plastic deformation models for the asperities on a real rock fracture with measured surface topography data, and estimated their impact on initial conditions for fluid flow test performed under laboratory conditions. Compared with the previous models that simulate the normal contact of a fracture as the approach of two rigid surfaces without deformations, our models of deformable asperities yielded smaller contact areas and higher stresses on contacting asperities at a given normal stress or normal displacement. The results show that the calculated local stresses were concentrated on the contacts of a few major asperities, resulting in crushing of asperity tips. With these higher contact stresses, however, the predicted closure rates by pressure solution are still several orders of magnitude lower than that of the experimental measurements at the initial stage of fluid flow test. This indicates that single pressure solution may not likely to be the principal compaction mechanism for this fast closure, and that the damages on contacting asperities that occur during the initial normal loading stage may play an important role. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

白鹤滩水电站左岸边坡深部破裂成因探讨

在对白鹤滩水电站坝址区河谷地质条件、地应力分布及左岸边坡深部破裂发育特征详细分析的基础上,采用离散元数值软件UDEC以剥蚀法模拟河谷演化发育过程,分析白鹤滩水电站左岸边坡深部破裂的形成原因。模拟结果反映河谷应力场分布呈现出了典型深切河谷所具有的应力松弛、升高及原始三区以及谷底存在高地应力包的规律。同时对河谷边坡不同部位、不同阶段的应力变化规律进行了深入分析并结合现今河谷地质特征,认为该深部破裂是在河谷地层顺倾、区域高地应力、不对称V型河谷、下蚀迅速等特定条件下,在河谷演化过程中局部应力集中使岩体发生剪切屈服,并发育剪切破坏,河谷剥蚀卸荷后顺倾向错动带的出露使剪切破坏进一步发育成张性破坏的结果。     

Reaction enhanced channelised fluid-flux along mid- crustal shear zone: An example from Mesoproterozoic Phulad Shear Zone,Rajasthan, India

Fluid infiltration at great depth during regional metamorphism plays a major role in mass transport and is responsible for significant rheological changes in the rock. Calc-silicate rocks of the Kajalbas area of Delhi Fold Belt, Rajasthan, are characterised by foliation parallel alternate bands of amphibole-rich and clinopyroxene–plagioclase feldspar-rich layers of varying thicknesses (mm to decimetre thick). Textural relation suggests that the amphibole grains formed from clinopyroxene and plagioclase in the late phase of regional deformation. Algebraic analysis of the reaction textures and mineral compositions was performed with the computer program C-Space to obtain the balanced chemical reactions that led to the formation of amphibole-rich bands. The computed balanced reaction is 70.74 Clinopyroxene + 27.23 Plagioclase + 22.018 H₂O + 5.51 K⁺+ 1.00 Mg²⁺+ 27.15 Fe²⁺ = 22.02 Amphibole + 67.86 SiO₂ aqueous + 36.42 Ca²⁺+ 8.98 Na⁺. The constructed reaction suggests that aqueous fluid permeated the calc-silicate rock along mm to decimetre thick channels, metasomatized the clinopyroxene–plagioclase bearing rocks to form the amphibole-rich layers. The regional deformation presumably created the fluid channels thereby allowing the metasomatic fluid to enter the rock system. The above reaction has large negative volume change for solid phases indicating reaction-induced permeability. Thermodynamic calculations suggest that the fluid–rock interaction occurred at 665 ±05^°C and 6.6 ±0.25 kbar (corresponding to ～20 km depth). Textural modeling integrating the textural features and balanced chemical reaction of the calc-silicate rocks of Mesoproterozoic Phulad Shear Zone thus indicate that extremely channelled fluid flow was reaction enhanced and caused major change in the rock rheology.     

A three‐dimensional integral equation model for calculating poro‐ and thermoelastic stresses induced by cold water injection into a geothermal reservoir

Poro‐mechanical and thermo‐mechanical processes change the fracture aperture and thus affect the water flow pattern in the fracture during the cold water injection into enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). In addition, the stresses generated by these processes contribute to the phenomenon of reservoir seismicity. In this paper, we present a three‐dimensional (3D) partially coupled poro‐thermoelastic model to investigate the poroelastic and thermoelastic effects of cold water injection in EGS. In the model, the lubrication fluid flow and the convective heat transfer in the fracture are modeled by the finite element method, while the pore fluid diffusion and heat conductive transfer in the reservoir matrix are assumed to be 3D and modeled by the boundary integral equation method without the need to discretize the reservoir. The stresses at the fracture surface and in the reservoir matrix are obtained from the numerical model and can be used to assess the variation of in situ stress and induced seismicty with injection/extraction. Application of the model shows that rock cooling induces large tensile stresses and increases fracture conductivity, whereas the rock dilation caused by fluid leakoff decreases fracture aperture and increases compressive total stresses around the injection zone. However, increases in pore pressure reduce the effective stresses and can contribute to rock failure, fracture slip, and microseismic activity. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

剪切带的流体－岩石相互作用

作为大陆岩石圈中的应变局部化带，剪切带中一般都渗透着大量流体。流体的来源与剪切带所处的构造背景、流变域和水文条件有关，而剪切带中流体的流动则受岩石的渗透率、孔隙度、孔隙性质、流体的扩散和渗透能力、环境的温压条件、应力或载荷的梯度等因素所制约。剪切带中流体的成分、通量及赋存状态或流动方式，直接影响着岩石的流变。由应变局部化及力学失稳所引起的化学不平衡和由流体与岩石的相互作用，使剪切带岩石的矿物成分和化学成分发生调整，其变异程度取决于原岩的性质、剪切的温压条件和流体的成分及通量等。由于流体的渗透流动和流体与岩石的相互作用使剪切带的体积有所变化，体积变化过程是一种自组织行为。较大的体积亏损，意味着剪切带中渗透过大量的流体，这对剪切带的流变行为、化学行为和成矿作用都有深刻的影响。     

剪切带的流体－岩石相互作用

作为大陆岩石圈中的应变局部化带，剪切带中一般都渗透着大量流体。流体的来源与剪切带所处的构造背景、流变域和水文条件有关，而剪切带中流体的流动则受岩石的渗透率、孔隙度、孔隙性质、流体的扩散和渗透能力、环境的温压条件、应力或载荷的梯度等因素所制约。剪切带中流体的成分、通量及赋存状态或流动方式，直接影响着岩石的流变。由应变局部化及力学失稳所引起的化学不平衡和由流体与岩石的相互作用，使剪切带岩石的矿物成分和化学成分发生调整，其变异程度取决于原岩的性质、剪切的温压条件和流体的成分及通量等。由于流体的渗透流动和流体与岩石的相互作用使剪切带的体积有所变化，体积变化过程是一种自组织行为。较大的体积亏损，意味着剪切带中渗透过大量的流体，这对剪切带的流变行为、化学行为和成矿作用都有深刻的影响。     

含砂岩石力学特性及其致灾机制研究

含砂岩石是发生突水溃砂灾害前在高位关键层形成的特殊岩石,其强度与力学性质均与普通岩石不同,决定着高位关键层的稳定性。研究发现：不同裂隙角的裂隙岩石与含砂岩石具有不同的特征应力,且随着裂隙角的增加,裂隙岩石与含砂岩石的起裂应力、损伤应力和峰值应力均增加,双峰应力先增加后减小。相同裂隙角下的含砂岩石各特征应力均小于裂隙岩石,说明砂体对岩石特征应力具有弱化效应。从破坏形态来看,裂隙岩石易呈现翼形拉伸裂隙,含砂岩石在低裂隙角（30°）条件下形成拉伸裂隙,高裂隙角（60°）条件下易形成剪切裂隙,表明砂体进入岩石裂隙后对岩石具有剪切效应。同时建立了充砂力学模型,指出了含砂岩石强度小于裂隙岩石的原因是砂体降低了岩石的摩擦系数。根据声发射累计振铃计数定义了岩石损伤量并分析了含砂岩石致灾机制,现场溃砂灾害可分为4个阶段：弹性变形阶段、裂隙扩展阶段、蓄砂储能阶段、溃砂释能阶段。最后利用PFC2D验证了裂隙岩石与含砂岩石的差异性,分析了不同类型岩石的能量演化规律。研究结果可作为煤矿顶板突水溃砂现象的前兆信息识别,有助于指导突水溃砂工作面的安全生产。     

Effects of linking up of discontinuities on fracture growth and groundwater transport

It is proposed that the growth of fractures is the basic process for generating and maintaining permeability in solid rock (bedrock). Many extension fractures grow as hydrofractures, whereas many shear (and extension) fractures grow through the formation of transverse fractures that connect the adjacent tips of existing fractures. In a boundary-element analysis, the hydrofractures are modeled as being driven open by a fluid overpressure that varies linearly from 10 MPa at the fracture centre to 0 MPa at the fracture tip. The host rock has a uniform Young's modulus of 10 GPa, a Poisson's ratio of 0.25, and is dissected by vertical joints and horizontal contacts, each of which is modeled as an internal spring of stiffness 6 MPa m⁻¹. The number of joints and contacts, and their location with respect to the hydrofracture tip are varied in different model runs. The results of the analyses indicate that the tensile stresses generated by overpressured hydrofractures open up joints and contacts out to considerable distances from the fracture tip, so that they tend to link up to form a hydraulic pathway. Using the same Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, and internal spring constant for joints as in the hydrofracture models, boundary-element models were made to study the interaction stresses that cause neighbouring joints to become interconnected through the growth of linking transverse fractures that, ultimately, may evolve into shear fractures. The models were subjected to tensile stress of 6 MPa acting normal to the joint planes as the only loading. The offset (horizontal distance) and underlap (vertical distance) between the adjacent tips of the joints were varied between model runs. The results show a concentration of tensile and shear stresses in the regions between the neighbouring tips of the joints, but these regions become smaller when the underlap of the joints decreases and changes to overlap. These stress-concentration regions favour the development of transverse (mostly shear) fractures that link up the nearby tips of the joints, so as to form a segmented shear or extension fracture. Analytical results on aperture variation of a hydrofracture in a homogeneous, isotropic rock are compared with boundary-element results for a hydrofracture dissecting layered rocks. The aperture is larger where the hydrofracture dissects soft (low Young's modulus) layers than where it dissects stiff layers. Aperture variation may encourage subsequent groundwater-flow channeling along a pathway generated by a hydrofracture in layered rocks. Electronic Publication     

Permeability and stress in crystalline rocks

Groundwater from crystalline rocks is a significant resource in many areas of the world. It is also an important medium for contaminant transport from, for example, deep nuclear waste repositories. Stress distributions in fractured rocks are important in controlling groundwater flow in several ways: (i) palaeostress fields are responsible for the evolution of fracture systems which transmit groundwater; (ii) current in situ stress fields will influence the shape and aperture of fractures; (iii) humans can influence the natural stress field in a rock mass to enhance fracture flows. The significance of stresses for groundwater flow can be investigated by field techniques (hydraulic fracturing), laboratory techniques (stress cells) or by numerical modelling.     

稀疏非正交填充裂隙岩体水流—传热—应力模型与离散元模拟

为研究填充裂隙水流速度对岩体温度和应力的影响，选取甘肃北山地区的花岗岩，制作了稀疏非正交裂隙岩体模 型，采用河砂填充裂隙后进行模型试验；并对模型试验进行离散元数值模拟，分析了模型试验所测岩体温度和热应力与数 值模拟结果的差异和原因。结果显示：填砂裂隙强化了裂隙介质的热导能力，无填充时岩体温度和热应力比填砂时低；模 型试验和离散元模拟均表明，岩体温度和岩体应力随裂隙水流速度增大而减小，但是系统达到稳态所需要的时间变短；模 型试验中斜裂隙水流对温度场起主要作用；由于现有3DEC软件不能考虑水的热物性参数随温度的变化，进而产生自然对 流换热，斜裂隙水流和靠近热源侧的竖裂隙水流对温度场起主要作用。     

基于压水试验下的某水电站坝址区基岩裂隙网络系统透水特性的研究

依据单孔压水试验,分析了木里河流域某水电站坝址区基岩裂隙网络系统渗透特性,得到了坝址区不同岩性岩体中不同成因类型的裂隙渗透特性随埋深的变化规律,并为以后构建基岩裂隙介质等效连续介质数值模型时的参数选取提供依据。     

饱和稀疏裂隙岩体三维水流-传热过程中位移和应力的一种半解析计算方法

针对高放射核废深地质处置库近场环境,建立分布热源作用下饱和裂隙岩体三维水流-传热过程中位移和应力的一种半解析计算方法：采用Goodier热弹性位移势和Laplace变换计算由温度梯度产生的温梯位移和应力;考虑单一裂隙的情况,利用经典弹性力学的Boussinesq解和Cerruti解计算为满足边界条件的约束位移和应力,与温梯位移和应力叠加,可得总体热位移和应力;把裂隙面离散为矩形单元集合,采用极坐标系下的解析法计算包含奇点的单元积分,采用数值法计算与分布热源有关和不含奇点的单元积分。与基于裂隙面法向一维热传导假设的一种解析解对比,结果表明,半解析法与解析法的计算结果基本一致,但由于半解析法考虑岩石的三维热传导,因温度时空分布和演变的不同而导致不同的温梯应力。针对一个假想单裂隙岩体三维水流-传热过程,计算温梯位移和应力、约束位移和应力、总体位移和应力;结果表明,裂隙水流-传热可能对位移和应力的分布和演变有显著影响,距离分布热源较近的岩石因升温膨胀受到约束而出现压应力,而距离分布热源较远的岩石则可能因协调收缩受到约束而出现拉应力。     

稀疏非正交填充裂隙岩体水流—传热—应力模型与离散元模拟

为研究填充裂隙水流速度对岩体温度和应力的影响,选取甘肃北山地区的花岗岩,制作了稀疏非正交裂隙岩体模 型,采用河砂填充裂隙后进行模型试验;并对模型试验进行离散元数值模拟,分析了模型试验所测岩体温度和热应力与数 值模拟结果的差异和原因。结果显示：填砂裂隙强化了裂隙介质的热导能力,无填充时岩体温度和热应力比填砂时低;模 型试验和离散元模拟均表明,岩体温度和岩体应力随裂隙水流速度增大而减小,但是系统达到稳态所需要的时间变短;模 型试验中斜裂隙水流对温度场起主要作用;由于现有3DEC软件不能考虑水的热物性参数随温度的变化,进而产生自然对 流换热,斜裂隙水流和靠近热源侧的竖裂隙水流对温度场起主要作用。     

Numerical modelling of deformation and fluid flow in the Shuikoushan district, Hunan Province, South China

The Shuikoushan district, in Hunan Province, South China, contains major Pb–Zn–Au–Ag polymetallic mineralisation. Two groups of numerical models have been constructed to study the interactions between deformation and fluid flow in the district during the Yanshanian compression event (180 to 90 Ma). The first group includes district-scale conceptual models of coupled deformation and fluid flow during folding. The models show that fluid flow patterns are controlled by deformation within the fold system inferred for the district. During regional shortening and folding, fluids are generally focused towards the fold hinge/core areas along higher permeability layers (in particular Permian limestone units), in preference to flowing across the low permeability seal units (Permian and Jurassic terrestrial sequences). The efficiency of this fluid focusing can only be significantly increased if these folded seal units are allowed to undergo permeability increase as a result of tensile failure. The modelling results show that permeability enhancement localises mostly at fold hinges, dominantly within the silicified zone on the top of the Permian limestone unit. This process results in increased flow velocities and facilitates fluid focusing towards fold hinge/core locations at this silicified rock horizon. The second group includes deposit scale models for the Kangjiawan deposit, which is one of the two major deposits in the Shuikoushan district. The models show patterns of tensile failure, permeability creation, fluid focusing and mixing, and fracture development along a selected exploration cross section through the deposit. These results are consistent with the observed brecciation and mineralisation features. Regions of maximum brecciation in the district are associated with: (1) a combination of fold hinge and fault intersection locations (structural); and (2) the silicified zone and Permian limestone unit (lithological). Such brecciation zones are associated with extensive fluid focusing and mixing, and therefore represent the most favourable locations for mineralisation in the district. On the basis of this work, ideas for future research work and mineral exploration in the district are proposed.