中国天山积雪垂直分布异质性研究

基于2001—2018年MOD10A2积雪产品和MOD11A2陆地表面温度数据,采用精细分区统计和相关性分析方法,研究了中国天山不同海拔高度上积雪垂直分布特征及其与地表温度（Land surface temperature,LST）的响应关系。结果表明：中国天山积雪覆盖率（Snow cover percentage,SCP）随海拔的变化呈现春、夏、秋、冬4种不同的季节变化模式。SCP在海拔4200 m以下呈秋冬季增加、春夏季减少态势,在海拔4200 m以上呈秋冬季减少、春夏季增加态势。除冬季外,春、夏、秋3个季节的SCP与LST均具有显著强负相关性。     

Landscape position and spatial patterns in the distribution of land use within the southern Appalachian Mountains

Understanding the forces that influence the distribution of land use and land-use change (LUC) is an essential step in developing effective strategies for managing these issues. We examined the influence of landscape position on spatial patterns in land-use distribution within the Little Tennessee River Basin (LTRB) of the southern Appalachian Mountains. We show that landscape position, defined with respect to both natural and anthropogenic spatial variables, provides for the identification of statistically significant differences in the distribution of common forms of land use in the study region. Using the same variables, significant differences in the landscape positions subject to land-use change in the LTRB are also examined. These results suggest landscape position exerts a strong influence on the distribution of different forms of land use and the likeliness of given area undergoing LUC. The approach presented here, of considering land use as a function of landscape position that responds to both natural and anthropogenic forces, may prove useful in aiding the development of future strategies to address the consequences of land use in many regions.     

Study of seasonal snow cover influencing the ground thermal regime on western flank of Da Xing'anling Mountains, northeastern China

Although many studies relevant to snow cover and permafrost have focused on alpine, arctic, and subarctic areas, there is still a lack of understanding of the influences of seasonal snow cover on the thermal regime of the soils in permafrost regions in the mid-latitudes and boreal regions, such as that on the western flank of the Da Xing'anling(Hinggan) Mountains, northeastern China. This paper gives a detailed analysis on meteorological data series from 2001 to 2010 provided by the Gen'he Weather Station, which is located in a talik of discontinuous permafrost zone and with sparse meadow on the observation field. It is inferred that snow cover is important for the ground thermal regime in the middle Da Xing'anling Mountains. Snow cover of 10-cm in thickness and five to six months in duration(generally November to next March) can reduce the heat loss from the ground to the atmosphere by 28%, and by 71% if the snow depth increases to 36 cm. Moreover, the occurrence of snow cover resulted in mean annual ground surface temperatures 4.7–8.2 °C higher than the mean annual air temperatures recorded at the Gen'he Weather Station. The beginning date for stable snow cover establishment(SE date) and the initial snow depth(SDi) also had a great influences on the ground freezing process. Heavy snowfall before ground surface freeze-up could postpone and retard the freezing process in Gen'he. As a result, the duration of ground freezing was shortened by at least 20 days and the maximum depth of frost penetration was as much as 90 cm shallower.     

基于MODIS数据中国天山积雪面积时空变化特征分析

基于2011-2015年MOD10A2积雪产品和气象数据,通过几何校正、去云预处理,应用归一化差分积雪指数算法等获取中国境内天山山区积雪覆盖面积数据,分析了积雪面积的时空变化特征及与气温降水的关系。结果表明：（1）年内积雪面积呈单峰变化,9月开始积累,次年1月达峰值,3月气温回暖消融加速,至7月最小。春秋季波动较大但没有明显的增减趋势,夏季积雪面积最小,冬季最大且呈减小趋势。（2）2001-2015年积雪覆盖面积整体上呈减少趋势,积雪覆盖率最大值的波动比最小值的波动更加剧烈。（3）积雪覆盖率随着海拔升高而增大,海拔<1 500 m区域积雪覆盖率低于10%,海拔>4 500 m以上区域平均可达70%,为常年稳定积雪区。积雪覆盖率在西北坡最高,南坡最低。（4）年均气温升高是积雪覆盖面积减小的主因,年积雪覆盖面积变化与年降水量变化保持一致的下降趋势。     

基于GF-1的青藏高原东南部积雪分布及MODIS积雪产品适用性研究

青藏高原东南部海拔高,地形复杂,云量大,准确掌握该地区的积雪分布特征对于积雪灾害防治非常重要。论文以2013—2019年冬季积雪积累期云量符合要求的35景高分一号(GF-1)影像为基础,将全色影像和多光谱影像融合为2 m分辨率影像,通过目视解译获取了研究区积雪的空间分布特征,结合改进后的30 m分辨率SRTM DEM,探讨了地形对积雪分布的影响。结果表明：积雪像元在研究区范围内占比为33.1%。积雪的垂直分布特征明显：积雪在高程带4000~5000 m(高海拔)处分布较集中,积雪面积占比为18.1%;在高程带0~2000 m、2000~3000 m和6000~7000 m处积雪面积占比均不到0.1%。积雪在北坡、东北坡的分布比例较高,均为15%以上;在南坡、西坡、西南坡、东南坡分布比例较低,均为10%左右。将基于GF-1影像获取的积雪分布分别与同日获取的根据MODIS V6积雪产品计算的积雪比例(MODIS FSC)和积雪分布的对比表明,64.4%的MODIS FSC像元绝对误差不超过10%,MODIS积雪分布产品对含雪像元的漏分率和误分率平均为33.8%和32.7%,说明MODIS积雪产品在研究区的精度还具有较高的不确定性,其对低覆盖积雪反演的精度较差。这表明利用MODIS积雪产品研究青藏高原东南部积雪的时空变化特征时还需要对其积雪反演算法进行改进,同时亟需加强地面观测和基于多源遥感数据的积雪研究。研究结果可为青藏高原东南部雪冰灾害防治提供支撑。     

Vertical distribution of snow cover and its relation to temperature over the Manasi River Basin of Tianshan Mountains,Northwest China

How snow cover changes in response to climate change at different elevations within a mountainous basin is a less investigated question. In this study we focused on the vertical distribution of snow cover and its relation to elevation and temperature within different elevation zones of distinct climatology, taking the mountainous Manasi River Basin of Xinjiang, Northwest China as a case study. Data sources include MODIS 8-day snow product, MODIS land surface temperature (LST) data from 2001 to 2014, and in situ temperature data observed at three hydrological stations from 2001 to 2012. The results show that: (1) the vertical distribution of snow areal extent (SAE) is sensitive to elevation in low (<2100 m) and high altitude (>3200 m) regions and shows four different seasonal patterns, each pattern is well correspondent to the variation of temperature. (2) The correlation between vertical changes of the SAE and temperature is significant in all seasons except for winter. (3) The correlation between annual changes of the SAE and temperature decreases with increasing elevation, the negative correlation is significant in area below 4000 m. (4) The snow cover days (SCDs) and its long-term change show visible differences in different altitude range. (5) The long-term increasing trend of SCDs and decreasing trend of winter temperature have a strong vertical relation with elevation below 3600 m. The decreasing trend of SCDs is attributed to the increasing trend of summer temperature in the area above 3600 m.     

2001—2017年祁连山积雪面积时空变化特征

科学监测祁连山积雪面积及变化特征对该区域气候研究、雪水资源开发利用、环境灾害预报及生态环境保护等具有重要意义。基于2001—2017年MOD10A2积雪产品和气象数据,分析祁连山积雪面积动态变化特征及与气温降水关系。结果显示:(1) 2001—2017年祁连山积雪面积年际波动趋势较大,呈减小趋势,多年平均积雪面积约为5×104km2,占祁连山总面积的25. 9%;年内变化成"M"型,即在一个积雪年中有两个波峰和波谷,波峰出现在11月和1月,波谷出现在7月;季节变化波动趋势较大,夏冬季积雪面积减小趋势大于春季,秋季呈现略微增加趋势。(2)祁连山区积雪面积主要分布在3 000～4 000 m及4 000～5 000 m,积雪覆盖率随着海拔上升呈现逐渐增大的趋势;祁连山区不同坡向积雪覆盖面积差异较大,积雪覆盖率差异较小;积雪频率高值区呈典型的条带状分布,与祁连山地形相一致,呈西北—东南分布,且分布西部大于东部。(3)初步分析认为祁连山积雪面积变化对气温要素更敏感。     

2002—2018年叶尔羌河流域积雪时空变化研究

积雪是冰冻圈中较为活跃的因子,对气候环境变化敏感,其变化影响着全球气候和水文的变化。积雪覆盖日数(SCD)、降雪开始时间(SCOD)和融雪开始时间(SCMD)是影响地表物质和能量平衡的主要因素。使用MODIS无云积雪产品提取了叶尔羌河流域2002年7月-2018年6月逐日积雪覆盖率(SCP),基于像元计算了SCD、SCOD和SCMD,系统地分析了其空间分布与变化特征,并探讨了其变化的原因及积雪面积的异常变化与ENSO的联系。结果表明:(1)研究时段内,流域的积雪覆盖面积呈微弱减少趋势,与气温呈显著负相关,与降水呈显著正相关;2002-2018年,SCP随海拔的升高呈明显的线性增加趋势(R2=0.92、P<0.01));各海拔高度带最大SCP出现的月份大致随海拔的上升往后推迟,最小SCP出现月份无显著变化(集中在8月),海拔4000 m以下,春季的SCP小于冬季,海拔4000 m以上,春季的SCP大于冬季。(2)SCD、SCOD和SCMD有明显的海拔梯度,在流域内,从东北至西南,呈现出SCD增加,SCOD提前,SCMD推迟的特征;变化趋势上,流域91.9%的区域SCD表现为减少,65.6%的区域SCOD有往后推迟的趋势,77.4%的区域SCMD表现出提前的趋势。(3)2006、2008年和2017年积雪覆盖面积异常偏大,而在2010年则异常偏小,其原因可能是ENSO影响了积雪的变化。(4)以喀喇昆仑为主的高海拔地区,包括帕米尔高原东部的部分地区,其SCD、SCOD和SCMD分别表现出增加、提前和推迟的趋势,这种变化与其春秋温度的持续走低以及降水量的增加有关。     

基于遥感监测的秦岭南北积雪日数时空变化及影响因素

以海拔依赖型变暖为理论基础,研究山地积雪对气候变暖的响应机制,是当前气候变化研究的热点问题。基于2000—2019年MODIS积雪物候数据,对秦岭南北积雪日数时空变化进行分析,探讨了秋冬两季厄尔尼诺指数（NINO）、青藏高原气压对积雪异常的影响。结果表明：(1) 2013年后秦岭南北气候由“变暖停滞”转为“增温回升”,积雪日数随之呈现转折下降,积雪日数≥10 d栅格占比由前期的35.1%下降为8.6%。(2)在垂直地带规律上,秦岭山地以1950～2000 m为临界点,大巴山区以1600～1650 m为临界点,低海拔地区积雪日数随海拔增加速率要低于高海拔地区。2100～3150 m海拔带是积雪日数的垂直变化的关键带;(3)在影响因素上,NINO C区、NINO Z区秋冬海温和青藏高原冬季高压,是秦岭山地、汉江谷地和大巴山区积雪异常的有效指示信号。当赤道太平洋中部秋冬海温偏低,且青藏高原冬季高压偏低时,上述3个子区积雪日数异常偏多。(4)在环流机制方面,相对于积雪日数偏少年,秦岭南北积雪日数偏多年1—2月0℃等温线位置偏南,低温环境为增加冰雪物质积累、延缓冰雪消融提供了气温条件;1月区域存...     

Spatial distributions and interannual variations of snow cover over China in the last 40 years

By using the observational snow data of more than 700 weather stations,the interannual temporal and spatial characteristics of seasonal snow cover in China were analyzed.The results show that northern Xinjiang,northeastern China-Inner Mongolia,and the southwestern and southern portions of Tibetan Plateau are three regions in China with high seasonal snow cover and also an interannual anomaly of snow cover.According to the trend of both the snow depth and snow cover days,there are three changing patterns for the seasonal snow cover:The first type is that both snow depth and snow cover days simultaneously increase or decrease;this includes northern Xinjiang,middle and eastern Inner Mongolia,and so on.The second is that snow depth increases but snow cover days decrease;this type mainly locates in the eastern parts of the northeastern plain of China and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River.The last type is that snow depth decreases but snow cover days increase at the same time such as that in middle parts of Tibetan Plateau.Snow cover in China appears to have been having a slow increasing trend during the last 40 years.On the decadal scale,snow depth and snow cover days slightly increased in the 1960s and then decreased in the 1970s;they again turn to increasing in the 1980s and persist into 1990s.     

MODIS observed snow cover variations in the Aksu River Basin,Northwest China

A major proportion of discharge in the Aksu River is contributed from snow-and glacier-melt water.It is therefore essential to understand the cryospheric dynamics in this area for water resource management.The MODIS MOD10A2 remotesensing database from March 2000 to December 2012 was selected to analyze snow cover changes.Snow cover varied significantly on a temporal and spatial scale for the basin.The difference of the maximum and minimum Snow Cover Fraction(SCF)in winter exceeded 70%.On average for annual cycle,the characteristic of SCF is that it reached the highest value of 53.2%in January and lowest value of 14.7%in July and the distributions of SCF along with elevation is an obvious difference between the range of 3,000 m below and 3,000 m above.The fluctuation of annual average snow cover is strong which shows that the spring snow cover was on the trend of increasing because of decreasing temperatures for the period of 2000-2012.However,temperature in April increased significantly which lead to more snowmelt and a decrease of snow cover.Thus,more attention is needed for flooding in this region due to strong melting of snow.     

The Impacts of the Appalachian Mountains on the Post-Glacial Migration Pathways and Gene Flow of Sugar Maple (Acer Saccharum)

Understanding the post-glacial migration of species from their Pleistocene refugia to their modern ranges requires an examination of the influence of topography on migration pathways. We refined the migration ranges of sugar maple (Acer saccharum) since the last ice age, as described by Delcourt and Delcourt (1987), to exclude elevations where sugar maple was unlikely to have existed. The elevations, used as indictors of climatic limits, were based on the modern regional elevation limits of sugar maple. Paleo-range maps of sugar maple were combined with a digital elevation model in a geographic information system to remove the climatically unsuitable regions for sugar maple along its post-glacial migration. The genetic consequences of the interrupted migration pathways of sugar maple are discussed in relation to published studies of broad-spatial-scale genetic diversity in sugar maple.     

基于MODIS数据的2000-2013年西昆仑山玉龙喀什河流域积雪面积变化

利用两种卫星影像合成并引入冰川积雪区的方法,对西昆仑山玉龙喀什河流域2000-2013 年MOD10A2积雪数据进行去云处理,分析不同海拔高度积雪的年内和年际变化特征及趋势,结合气象要素,分析其分布变化原因。结果表明：① 低山区（1650-4000 m）积雪年内变化为单峰型,补给期为冬季,而高山区（4000~6000 m）存在“平缓型”春季补给期和“尖峰型”秋季补给期两个峰值;② 就年际变化而言,低、高山区平均、最大积雪面积呈微弱增加趋势,高山区最小积雪面积显著增加,倾向率为65.877 km²/a;③ 就季节变化而言,春、夏、冬三季低、高山区积雪面积年际变化呈“增加—减少—增加”趋势,秋季高山区积雪面积则呈“增加—减少”趋势,而低山区积雪面积在2009 和2010 年异常偏大,其他年份面积变化不大;④ 在低山区,气温是影响春、夏两季积雪面积变化的主因,气温和降水对秋季积雪面积变化的影响相当,而冬季积雪面积变化对降水更敏感;在高山区,夏季积雪面积变化对气温更敏感,而冬、春季积雪面积变化主要受降水影响。     

Modelling the dynamics of snow cover, soil frost and surface ice in Norwegian grasslands

Studying the winter survival of forage grasses under a changing climate requires models that can simulate the dynamics of soil conditions at low temperatures. We developed a simple model that simulates depth of snow cover, the lower frost boundary of the soil and the freezing of surface puddles. We calibrated the model against independent data from four locations in Norway, capturing climatic variation from south to north (Arctic) and from coastal to inland areas. We parameterized the model by means of Bayesian calibration, and identified the least important model parameters using the sensitivity analysis method of Morris. Verification of the model suggests that the results are reasonable. Because of the simple model structure, some overestimation occurs in snow and frost depth. Both the calibration and the sensitivity analysis suggested that the snow cover module could be simplified with respect to snowmelt and liquid water content. The soil frost module should be kept unchanged, whereas the surface ice module should be changed when more detailed topographical data become available, such as better estimates of the fraction of the land area where puddles may form.     

A new MODIS daily cloud free snow cover mapping algorithm on the Tibetan Plateau

Because of similar reflective characteristics of snow and cloud, the weather status seriously affects snow monitoring using optical remote sensing data. Cloud amount analysis during 2010 to 2011 snow seasons shows that cloud cover is the major limitation for snow cover monitoring using MOD10A1 and MYD10A1. By use of MODIS daily snow cover products and AMSR-E snow water equivalent products (SWE), several cloud elimination methods were integrated to produce a new daily cloud free snow cover product, and information of snow depth from 85 climate stations in Tibetan Plateau area (TP) were used to validate the accuracy of the new composite snow cover product. The results indicate that snow classification accuracy of the new daily snow cover product reaches 91.7% when snow depth is over 3 cm. This suggests that the new daily snow cover mapping algorithm is suitable for monitoring snow cover dynamic changes in TP.     

A new MODIS daffy cloud free snow cover mapping algorithm on the Tibetan Plateau

Because of similar reflective characteristics of snow and cloud, the weather status seriously affects snow monitoring using optical remote sensing data. Cloud amount analysis during 2010 to 2011 snow seasons shows that cloud cover is the major limitation for snow cover monitoring using MOD10A1 and MYD10A1. By use of MODIS daily snow cover products and AMSR-E snow wa- ter equivalent products （SWE）, several cloud elimination methods were integrated to produce a new daily cloud flee snow cover product, and information of snow depth from 85 climate stations in Tibetan Plateau area （TP） were used to validate the accuracy of the new composite snow cover product. The results indicate that snow classification accuracy of the new daily snow cover product reaches 91.7% when snow depth is over 3 cm. This suggests that the new daily snow cover mapping algorithm is suitable for monitoring snow cover dynamic changes in TP.     

Measurements of physical characteristics of summer snow cover on sea ice during the Third Chinese Arctic Expedition

The spatial distribution of snow cover on the central Arctic sea ice is investigated here based on the observations made during the Third Chinese Arctic Expedition. Six types of snow were observed during the expedition: new/recent snow, melt-freeze crust, icy layer, depth hoar, coarse-grained, and chains of depth hoar. Across most measurement areas, the snow surface was covered by a melt-freeze crust 2-3 cm thick, which was produced by alternate strong solar radiation and the sharp temperature decrease over the summer Arctic Ocean. There was an intermittent layer of snow and ice at the base of the snow pack. The mean bulk density of the snow was 304.01±29.00 kg/m3 along the expedition line, and the surface values were generally smaller than those of the subsurface, confirming the principle of snow densification. In addition, the thicknesses and water equivalents of the new/recent and total-layer snow showed a decreasing trend with latitude, suggesting that the amount of snow cover and its spatial variations were mainly determined by precipitation. Snow temperature also presented significant variations in the vertical profile, and ablation and evaporation were not the primary factors in the snow assessment in late summer. The mean temperature of the surface snow was 2.01±0.96°C, which was much higher than that observed in theinterface of snow and sea ice.     

Impacts of snow cover and frozen soil in the Tibetan Plateau on summer precipitation in China

This paper presents an analysis of the mechanisms and impacts of snow cover and frozen soil in the Tibetan Plateau on the summer precipitation in China, using RegCM3 version 3.1 model simulations. Comparisons of simulations vs. observations show that RegCM3 well captures these impacts. Results indicate that in a more-snow year with deep frozen soil there will be more precipitation in the Yangtze River Basin and central Northwest China, western Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang, but less precipitation in Northeast China, North China, South China, and most of Southwest China. In a less-snow year with deep frozen soil, however, there will be more precipitation in Northeast China, North China, and southern South China, but less precipitation in the Yangtze River Basin and in northern South China. Such differences may be attributed to different combination patterns of melting snow and thawing frozen soil on the Plateau, which may change soil moisture as well as cause differences in energy absorption in the phase change processes of snow cover and frozen soil. These factors may produce more surface sensible heat in more-snow years when the frozen soil is deep than when the frozen soil is shallow. The higher surface sensible heat may lead to a stronger updraft over the Plateau, eventually contributing to a stronger South Asia High and West Pacific Subtropical High. Due to different values of the wind fields at 850 hPa, a convergence zone will form over the Yangtze River Basin, which may produce more summer precipitation in the basin area but less precipitation in North China and South China. However, because soil moisture depends on ice content, in less-snow years with deep frozen soil, the soil moisture will be higher. The combination of higher frozen soil moisture with latent heat absorption in the phase change process may generate less surface sensible heat and consequently a weaker updraft motion over the Plateau. As a result, both the South Asia High and the West Pacific Subtropical High will be weaker, hence causing more summer precipitation in northern China but less in southern China.     

Trend of snow cover fraction over East Asia in the 21st century under different scenarios

Using the snow cover fraction (SNC) output from eight WCRP CMIP3 climate models under SRES A2, A1B, and B1 scenarios, the future trend of SNC over East Asia is analyzed. Results show that SNC is likely to decrease in East Asia, with the fastest decrease in spring, then winter and autumn, and the slowest in summer. In spring and winter the SNC decreases faster in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau than in northern East Asia, while in autumn there is little difference between them. Among the various scenarios, SRES A2 has the largest decrease trend, then A1B, and B1 has the smallest trend. The decrease in SNC is mainly caused by the changes in surface air temperature and snowfall, which contribute differently to the SNC trends in different regions and seasons.     

北半球积雪/海冰面积与温度相关性的差异分析

积雪和海冰的时空变化对区域以及全球的气候、水文具有重要影响。基于雪冰数据和NCEP再分析气温数据,利用MK检验、滞后分析等方法,分析了积雪、海冰的时空变化特征及其与温度的相关特征。结果表明：1979-2013年,北半球积雪区、北极圈的年均温度呈显著上升的趋势,而积雪面积和海冰面积呈显著下降的趋势。在大部分地区,积雪覆盖频率随着温度的上升呈显著减少的趋势,但在中国长江中下游、青藏高原等局部地区,积雪覆盖频率随着温度的上升呈显著增加趋势。在大部分的近陆地海域,海冰覆盖频率随着温度的上升呈显著下降趋势。超前时间1~2个月的温度与海冰面积的负相关性最高。超前1~4个月的温度与积雪面积的负相关性最高。温度对海冰的影响时间比对积雪的影响时间长1~2个月。温度变化对海冰和积雪的影响存在一致性,但积雪和海冰对温度的响应时间存在差异,具有空间变异性。