Self-expanded piles: A new approach to unconventional piles development

Abstract

In onshore and offshore fields of ocean engineering, piles are used as foundation systems for various structures. Piles are classified into different types depending on their materials, geometries, and particularly, installation methods, which have advantages or limitations. Companies and engineers have developed a new group of piles, because of necessity to improve their performance in terms of increasing the bearing capacity, reducing impacts of traditional installation procedures, implementing by low- torque power equipment, and utilizing them in widely different ground conditions, including in a marine environment. In the present study, three different models of a new pile with an expander body are introduced to increase the shaft and pile-toe diameters and its self-expansion in the embedment depth under the titles of the Bubble pile (BP), Self-Expanded pile (SEP) and Wing pile (WP). The main subject of this research is to achieve increased bearing capacity, reduced installation effects, and decreased required installation torque. The frustum-confining vessel of Amirkabir University of Technology (FCV-AUT) was employed for this purpose. Up to 14 axial compressive and tensile load tests were carried out on different model piles on sand collected from Anzali shore located on the northern coast of Caspian Sea in Iran, with relative densities of 45% to 50% within FCV-AUT. Comparing the performance of introduced pile with traditional pile corresponding to the same characteristics, the results indicated a significant increase in the axial bearing capacity and reduced disturbance effect of the pile. Also, a lower installation torque of the SE pile was required compared to the helical pile. The test results also demonstrated that the new pile could resist considerable compressive and uplift loads, and could be a possible alternative to traditional piles in the onshore sector.     

A review on the behavior of helical piles as a potential offshore foundation system

Abstract

Helical piles are used mainly to resist tension forces generated by uplift and overturning moments of various structures, therefore they have been suggested as a potential alternative to driven piles as offshore pile because they provide a large uplift capacity due to the anchor effect of the helix. To date no standards are available for the assessment of the use of helical piles in the offshore environment. State-of-the art installation and uplift capacity assessment is based on field onshore tests on small helical piles. The purpose of this review is to critically evaluate the current knowledge on helical piles considering uplift capacity, cyclic load, installation torque models and the parameters affecting the installation torque, to understand whether they can be considered for potential offshore applications. The paper could be of valuable interest for engineers and contractors involved in the offshore installation of piles.     

Postgrouted helical piles behavior through physical modeling by FCV

Piling procedure may disturb the surrounding soil, due to the installation particularly for cast-in-place piles. It causes a reduction in the soil strength parameters and, consequently, pile capacity. To overcome shortcomings and also for improving piles’ capacity, postgrouting as a compensation method is recognized and more developed in recent years. Helical piles, those are used widely in marine and land projects, although, are driven by torque implementation, but soil disturbance is noticed, where number of the helices become up to 3 and more. In this paper, an experimental study program is performed by frustum-confined vessel (FCV) to investigate bearing capacity of model helical piles and also postgrouted cases’ performance. FCV has been used because of its linear distribution of vertical and horizontal stresses from zero at top to maximum at bottom which simulates real field stress conditions. Through experimental study, small-scale helical model piles were made of 4-mm-thick steel plate and have been used with a length of 750?mm. The shaft and helix diameters of model piles have been 32 and 89?mm, respectively. So, the helix-to-shaft ratio (wing ratio) was about 2.8. The helical model piles installed in fine-grained sand as a surrounding soil and then axial loading tests before and after grouting were performed to achieve ultimate pile capacity. Results indicated postgrouting can improve both ratios of toe and frictional soil–pile interactions including upgrading β and N_t factors. In addition, the post grouting phenomena can change the pile geometry due to treated soil bond, resulting better functioning. Therefore, it is a proper method to improve helical piles performance and compensate installation effects in capacity mobilization.     

Closure to discussion “A review on the behavior of helical piles as a potential offshore foundation system”

Abstract

A closure on the recent discussion regarding the review on the behavior of helical piles as a potential offshore foundation system by the Authors is presented. Installation torque, uplift capacity, installation effects, model pile, installation speed and results proposed by Discussers are commented.     

Model tests on open-ended concrete pipe piles jacked in sand

Abstract

An experimental study of the performance of concrete pipe piles during installation under different penetration speeds and static load tests on the piles in sand is presented. The applied jacking force, the amount of pile penetration, length of soil plug formed and ultimate bearing capacity were measured during the model tests. The results showed that the concrete pipe piles were partially plugged and the behavior of the soil plug was significantly affected by the penetration speed. The lower the penetration speed, the larger the soil plug formed which in turn leads to a greater ultimate bearing capacity. The size of soil plug can be evaluated by the m value defined as the ratio of the volume of the soil plug to that of the penetrated pile wall. The relationship between the m value and the penetration speeds can be used to estimate the amount of soil plug and the depth of penetration for an open-ended concrete pipe pile jacked into sand.     

Discussion: A review on the behaviour of helical piles as a potential offshore foundation system

Abstract

Helical piles have emerged as an attractive foundation system for offshore applications with renewed interest from the offshore community. Significant research gap currently exists in transferring this technology offshore and this paper discusses how existing and emerging knowledge can be successfully used to bridge some of the gaps. We focus on the Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) large deformation finite element (LDFE) modelling technique that is commercially available and can be used to model the three-dimensional installation process with consideration of strain rate and softening effects in soft offshore clays. A helical pile of L?=?7.5?m long is modelled with one or two large-diameter helices (D?=?2?m) attached to a central shaft of d?=?0.5?m in diameter.The net effect of strain rate and softening is to increase the installation torque. The measured torque is within the range of 200–400?kN.m for the offshore clay and the pile geometry studied. Additional helices increase the uplift force but to a lesser degree than that of the measured torque. Remoulding induced strength reduction is found to be within the range of 25–33% of the intact clay strength. Issues of extracting and reusing offshore helical pile foundations are discussed.     

Large-scale experimental investigation of the installation of suction caissons in silt sand

Offshore wind power is a rapidly growing area of electricity in China. In the present paper, interaction mechanisms between the caisson for wind turbines and saturated silt sand are investigated with laboratory tests based on two different installation methods, jacking installation and suction installation. For the jacking installation process, the results indicate that the soil pressures inner and outer the skirt of the caisson vary with a similar feature and the magnitudes of the two are nearly balanced. The tip resistance plays a key role in the total jacking installation resistance. This paper examines the predictive performance of q_c method and API approach for jacking installation resistance. It is demonstrated that the q_c method provides better predictions. The resistance coefficients are recommended. For the case of suction installation, however, the changes of soil pressures inner and outer the skirt are contrasting. Specifically, the inner pressure and tip resistance fall dramatically, but the outer pressure increases when suction is applied. Seepage effect is found to be an important mechanism for the installation of suction caisson. The reduction ratios of the inner friction and tip resistance follow a power-function with the normalized suction. Based on the test results, a prediction method for the required suction has been developed and evaluated.     

Model tests on performance of offshore wind turbine with suction caisson foundation in sand

Abstract

The performance of steel caisson during and after installation with different penetration velocities in medium dense sand is presented. The applied jacking forces, the amount of formed soil heave and bearing capacity were measured in the model tests. The influence of penetration velocities on jacking forces, soil heave and bearing capacity were also discussed in detail. The results indicated that the jacking forces for caisson in medium dense sands were significantly affected by the penetration velocity. The larger the penetration velocity, the more soil flowed into the caisson cavity during installation. This will lead to larger inner shaft resistance and in turn more jacking forces required for the same penetration depth. The height of soil heave during installation increases with penetration velocity. The m value calculated by the ratio of the volumes of the soil heave to that of the penetrated caisson wall can be used to evaluate the soil heave. The larger the applied velocity, the larger the m value and larger bearing capacity of caisson after installation. The relationship between the m value and penetration velocity can be used to control the soil heave for a steel caisson with a wall thickness to external diameter ratio of 4.2% in medium dense sand by jacking method.     

软黏土中成桩工艺对HSCM桩抗压承载性能影响的模型试验研究

螺旋桩芯劲性复合桩（helix stiffened cement mixing pile,简称HSCM桩）是一种新型复合桩,其成桩工艺会对桩身及其承载性能有较大影响。为验证HSCM桩在软黏土中同步旋进注浆工艺的可行性,并研究其成桩参数对抗压承载性能的影响,设计了2组缩尺模型试验,包括不同叶片数量与钻进速度的HSCM桩与对比螺旋桩。通过在高岭土制备的软黏土中成桩,并进行抗压承载性能及桩身几何尺寸测试,分析HSCM桩的成桩参数与水泥土桩身间的关系。试验结果表明：同步旋进注浆工艺能够在螺旋桩周围形成倒圆台状的水泥土桩身,水泥土桩身的平均黏结直径约为叶片直径的1.17～1.35倍;适当增加叶片数量能够使水泥与土体充分拌和,提高水泥土桩身的完整性与连续性,以改善HSCM桩的成桩质量;钻进速度大幅提高会导致注浆量不足,减小水泥土桩身的黏结直径与刚度;试验条件下HSCM桩的抗压极限承载力是螺旋桩的3.83～3.93倍,桩径扩大提高了侧摩阻力,注浆工艺加固并提高了土体强度,弥补了叶片在旋进过程中扰动土体造成强度降低的问题。     

Numerical analysis of bearing capacity of drilled displacement piles with a screw-shaped shaft in sand

Drilled displacement (DD) piles with a screw-shaped shaft (referred to as DD piles) are installed using a continuous full thread hollow rod (without a displacement body) inserted and advanced in the soil by both a vertical force and a torque. As a type of newly developed pile, current understanding of the bearing mechanism of DD piles is unsatisfactory, which restricts their further applications in engineering. The primary aim of this paper is to study the bearing mechanism of this type of pile using a numerical method. First, a numerical model for calculating the bearing capacity of the DD piles was created and validated by a laboratory test. Then, the effects of the parameters of pile–soil interface, soil strength, and pile geometrical parameters on the bearing mechanism of the DD piles were investigated in parametric studies. The results of parametric studies show that the limit shear stress on the pile–soil interface, the friction angle of surrounding sand, screw pitch, and thread width significantly influence the bearing capacity of the DD piles, whereas the friction coefficient at the pile–soil interface and the thread thickness have little effect. Based on the results of the parametric studies, the failure mechanism of the DD piles under vertical load is analyzed. Finally, an equation for predicting the ultimate bearing capacities of helical piles based on cylindrical shear failure was used for estimating the bearing capacity of the DD piles, and the calculated results were verified with the numerical results.     

Immersed tunnel foundation on marine clay improved by sand compaction piles

The sand compaction pile (SCP) method can be applied to soft marine clay ground that is a reinforcement of composite ground consisting of compacted sand piles and surrounding clay. The application of SCP method in the immersed tunnel of Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge verify SCP method is a robust solution to limit the total settlement and differential longitudinal settlement and to promote smooth transition from immersed tunnel to artificial island. The SCP method has significant settlement reduction effect on marine clay. The SCPs can also function as a drainage path to accelerate the consolidation process in marine clay. It is also found that the consolidation rate of SCP-improved ground is delayed compared with that predicted program which is most probably because of the soil disturbance effect during the installation of SCPs.     

Implementation of state-dependent plasticity model in strain wedge model for laterally loaded piles in sand

ABSTRACT

The strain wedge model effectively performs nonlinear analyses of the lateral response of piles by using a nonlinear stress-strain relationship to describe soil behavior in the strain wedge. In this study, a state-dependent plasticity model has been implemented in the strain wedge model to calculate the stress-strain relationship for sand in the strain wedge. To complement this implementation, the effect of dilatancy on the shear strain is considered in the strain wedge. A full-scale test and a 45 g centrifuge model test on laterally loaded piles are used to validate the proposed method. The results show that the deflections and moments predicted by the proposed method accord well with those measured from full-scale and centrifugal model pile tests. Moreover, the combination of the state-dependent plasticity model and the strain wedge model allows for analyzing the lateral response of single piles using a unique set of model parameters for different relative densities of sands. In addtion, the stress-strain response in the strain wedge, not the dilatancy, dominates the soil resistance in the strain wedge and thus the lateral response of piles.     

A numerical investigation of influence of low-plasticity fines in sand on lateral response of piles

Abstract

Experimental evidence suggests that sands containing non-plastic or low-plasticity fines may show either decreasing or increasing shear strength with increasing fines content in certain situations. Accordingly, the presence of low-plasticity fines can significantly affect the ultimate lateral soil resistance; thus low-plasticity fines can affect the lateral response of piles. In this study, a quantitative method is proposed for determining the effect of low-plasticity fines in sand on the lateral response of piles in sand by combining a strain wedge model and a unified critical state compatible (UCSC) framework. An equivalent granular state parameter is employed in the UCSC framework to define the soil state uniquely in the strain wedge. The proposed quantitative method is incorporated in a finite element program. A series of numerical analyses are performed on a laterally loaded pile embedded in various relative densities of the base (clean) sand, to which various quantities of low-plasticity fines are added. The effect of low-plasticity fines on the lateral response is investigated. Furthermore, the effect of the low-plasticity fines on the response of the strain wedge is discussed.     

Field study of set-up effect in open-ended PHC pipe piles

Large-scale field tests were conducted to study set-up effect in open-ended prestressed high-strength concrete pipe piles jacked into stratified soil. Four open-ended prestressed high-strength concrete pipe piles with 13 and 18 m in embedment depth were fully instrumented with fiber Bragg grating sensors and installed. Several restrike dynamic tests were performed on each test pile, with the time interval from 21.5 to 284 hours after installation. Static loading tests (SLTs) were later performed on each test pile at 408 hours after installation to substantiate the dynamic tests. Changes with time in pile bearing capacity and in the shaft and toe resistances were studied based on the results of the pile tests. The development of shaft resistance set-up in different layers was studied in particular. It was found that set-up effect in the shaft resistance is significant and the toe resistance increment was minor. The overall set-up factor of total bearing capacity was found to range from 0.09 to 0.53, and the set-up effect of friction pile is much larger than the end bearing pile. More significant set-up in shaft resistance was observed in fill and alluvium layer. The dimensionless set-up factor A for shaft resistance in marine deposits ranges from 0.5 to 1.43, and it contributes the most to the shaft resistance as the shaft resistance in marine deposits is higher.     

珊瑚礁地质大直径钢管打入桩承载特性研究

马尔代夫中马友谊大桥采用钻孔灌注桩基础,主墩基础施工过程中,将35根大直径钢护筒施沉至中等—强胶结礁灰岩地层,作为钻孔平台的临时桩基础。以主墩大直径钢护筒沉桩记录为依据,并结合高应变动力检测方法,对珊瑚礁地质大直径打入桩的承载性能进行研究。研究结果表明:1)以钙质砂为主的覆盖层侧阻力较小; 2)礁灰岩侧阻力随胶结程度的增加而增大; 3)中等—强胶结礁灰岩可以作为打入桩的持力层,端阻力约占总承载力的70%; 4)打入桩的承载力恢复系数较小,仅为1.1。     

Bearing Behavior of Cast-in-Place Expansive Concrete Pile in Coral Sand Under Vertical Loading

The low side friction of piles in coral sand results in the low bearing capacity of foundations. In this paper, expansive concrete pile is utilized to improve the bearing capacity of pile foundations in coral sand. Both model tests and numerical simulation are performed to reveal the bearing mechanism of expansive concrete pile in coral sand.Results showed that the lateral earth pressure near pile increases obviously and the side friction of piles is improved,after adding expansion agent to the concrete. The horizontal linear expansion is 1.11% and the bearing capacity increased 41% for the pile, when 25% expansion agent is added. Results in finite element numerical simulation also show that ultimate bearing capacity increases with the increase of the linear expansion ratio. Besides, the area for obvious increase in side friction is below the surface of soil about three times the pile diameter, and the expansion leads to a high side friction sharing of the pile. Therefore, the cast-in-place expansive concrete pile is effective in improving the bearing capacity of piles in coral sand.     

Penetration response of spudcans in layered sands

The behaviour of spudcan foundations during the installation and preloading in two-layer sand sediments was investigated through large deformation finite element (LDFE) analyses. The LDFE analyses were carried out using the coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian approach, modifying Mohr-Coulomb soil model to capture hardening and subsequent softening effects of sand. Parametric analyses were undertaken varying the top layer thickness, relative density of sand and spudcan diameter. Both loose to medium dense-over-dense and dense-over-loose to medium dense sand deposits were explored. The results showed that, for the investigated relatively thin top layer thickness of ≤ 5 m, spudcan behaviour was dictated by the bottom sand layer with a minimal influence of the top layer. For assessing the penetration resistance profile in two-layer sands, the performance of the ISO, SNAME, InSafeJIP, and other existing theoretical design methods were evaluated.     

基于VOF模型的浮式消波海流机性能优化

针对浮式消波海流机样机测试时出现的问题,对其吃水深度线和叶片安装角度进行优化。根据装置结构特点,用Gambit建立了装置横截面的二维网格模型。根据浮式消波海流机实际工作环境,利用Fluent流体仿真软件,使用VOF(volume of fluid)两相流模型,分配空气相与液态水相在流域中的不同比例,来确定不同的吃水深度线。并且结合k-epsilon紊流模型建立模拟仿真环境。先对3种水线进行仿真分析,然后进行实验验证。通过分析对比装置的3种不同吃水深度线的模拟与实验结果,得到装置的最优吃水深度线为1/3水线。基于最优吃水深度线,分别对叶片的4种安装角度在相同的仿真环境中进行模拟仿真。利用仿真得到的扭矩数据,计算扭矩系数、功率系数,分析对比仿真数据以及仿真过程中扭矩趋势图得出4种叶片安装角度的最优角度是90°。吃水深度线决定了装置的消波能力,并且为叶片获能提供条件,叶片安装角度直接影响着装置的获能效率,所以最优的吃水深度线和叶片安装角度对海流机的消波能力和获能效率具有重要意义。     

Simplified analysis of offshore piles under cyclic lateral loads

A simple theory for predicting the response to cyclic lateral loading of piles deeply driven in either soft clay or sand is presented and formulas given for calculating, among other things, deflection and internal bending moment along the pile. The theory assumes the soil resistance to deflection to be characterized by an initial elastic reaction up to a critical deflection level, followed by a yield reaction independent of further deflection. Soil parameters are estimated and the theory is shown to provide good correlation with existing field data.     

Numerical evaluation of a subsea equipment installation method designed to avoid resonant responses

Several methods have been employed to install the different types of subsea equipment that are required for offshore oil and gas production systems. More recently, the increasing development of oil fields at remote, ultra-deepwater scenarios has been requiring heavier and more complex subsea equipment. In such scenarios the usual installation methods have been facing increasing challenges, including resonance effects associated to the dynamic behavior of the cable-equipment system. In this context, after presenting a review of the state-of-the-art of installation methods for subsea equipment, this work presents a methodology for the design and evaluation of an installation method based on the combination of steel wire and polyester ropes. The goal is to obtain a feasible and safe installation method that can avoid resonance effects along all phases of the lowering procedure, without the need of specialized devices such as heave compensators, and using only simpler installation vessels such as standard tugboats instead of more expensive and specialized vessels (such as drilling rigs). The method is evaluated by numerical simulations for case studies considering representative metocean data for Brazilian ultra-deepwater scenarios, following a methodology that considers the random characteristic of actual sea states by employing an irregular spectral representation. The results indicate that the method may indeed be feasible for the deepwater installation of heavier equipment, potentially being more cost-effective especially for remote locations where other more complex methods might become inefficient.