Salt Spray Induces Osmotic Adjustment and Tissue Rigidity in Smooth Cordgrass, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina alterniflora</Emphasis> (Loisel.)

Salt spray is one of many abiotic factors that can influence plant productivity and species composition in coastal ecosystems. However, little is known about how marsh plants respond physiologically to the accumulation of sea aerosols on foliar tissues. In this study, experimental microcosms maintained in controlled greenhouse conditions were used to evaluate how low- (1.7 mg dm⁻² day⁻¹, weekly averages) and high- (8.6 mg dm⁻² day⁻¹) salt-spray loads would influence plant–water relations in Spartina alterniflora (Loisel.). While no differences in plant performance (e.g., changes in biomass and leaf area) were observed between the treatments and control plants, a number of physiological modifications attributed to salt spray were observed. In general, salt-treated plants underwent significant decreases in water potential (Ψ) and osmotic potential (Ψ _π) and increases in leaf conductance (g) and bulk modulus of elasticity (ε). It is likely that these physiological responses were used to generate lower Ψ while maintaining osmotic and water homeostasis. That is, by decreasing Ψ _π and increasing g and ε, more efficient water flow through the soil–plant–atmosphere continuum can be achieved, thus generating lower Ψ without promoting loss of turgor.     

Direct-count estimates of fungal and bacterial biovolume in dead leaves of smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora Loisel.)

Two types of hyphal-extraction, direct-count methods of estimating fungal biovalume in standing-dead, autumn leaves of Spartina alterniflora were compared with a clearing+staining method which does not require homogenization. Bacterial biovolume also was estimated, by an acridine-orange direct-count method. Type of homogenization had little effect on measured fungal volume, but counts made using water-soluble-aniline-blue epifluorescence were consistently lower than those made using phase-contrast (by 6–10x). Clearing+staining could not be used to estimate hyphal lengths, but was of use in estimating total ascocarp volume (=0.06 mm³ per mm³ of leaf). Estimated fungal hyphal volume was approximately 0.27 mm³ per mm³ of leaf. Bacterial volume was <3% of fungal volume.     

Expansion rates and recruitment frequency of exotic smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora (Loisel), colonizing unvegetated littoral flats in Willapa Bay, Washington

We estimated lateral growth rates of nonindigenous Spartina alterniflora patches in Willapa Bay, Washington, over three intervals between 1970 and 1990, to reconstruct recruitment frequency since S. alterniflora was initially introduced c. 1890. Black and white aerial photographs (1∶24,000 scale) of four representative sites where S. alterniflora has invaded were analyzed. Individual patches were digitized on a computer, and diameter and area were computed for each patch for all years and sites sampled using CAD software. Lateral growth rates of individual. S. alterniflora patches increased linearly at 79.3 (± 1.674 SE) cm yr⁻¹. Back calculations of origin dates for individual patches based on mean lateral growth rates indicate that recruitment of new patches has been episodic and increasing in frequency since initial introduction. Environmental factors such as sea surface temperature, sea level, and precipitation may account for some of this recruitment variability. These data may be useful in existing and future models of S. alterniflora expansion in Pacific Northwest estuaries.     

改性Mg(OH)2对多种重金属污染土壤的修复效果

为了研究一种高效的多种重金属污染土壤修复剂,本文采用了一种具有OH^-缓释功能的改性Mg（OH）₂,通过重金属污染土壤稳定化修复实验,探讨了改性Mg（OH）₂对污染土壤中多种重金属（Pb、Cd、Cu、Zn）的稳定效率及对多种重金属形态分布的影响。结果表明,投加改性Mg（OH）₂对土壤中多种重金属均有稳定作用,对Pb、Cd、Cu、Zn的稳定效率分别为72.42%、34.53%、87.64%和97.65%,且改性Mg（OH）₂的投加使重金属交换态质量明显减少、残渣态质量增加,进一步提高了重金属的稳定性,降低了重金属生物有效性;另外,改性Mg（OH）₂具有OH^-缓释性,可使土壤长期保持一定的碱性,是一种经济有效的土壤修复剂。     

The introduction and spread of smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) in South San Francisco Bay

Spartina alterniflora was first introduced into south San Francisco Bay in the 1970’s. Since that time it has spread to new areas within the south bay and is especially well established at four sites. The spread of this introduced species was evaluated by comparing its vegetative and reproductive characteristics to the native cordgrass, Spartina foliosa. The characters studied were intertidal distribution, phenology, aboveground and belowground biomass, growth rates, seed production, and germination rates. Spartina alterniflora has a wider intertidal distribution than S. foliosa and outproduced the native cordgrass in all aspects that were studied. These results indicate that the introduced species has a much better chance of becoming established in new areas than the native species, and once established, it spreads more rapidly vegetatively than the native species. Spartina alterniflora is likely to continue to spread to new areas in the bay and displace the native plant. In addition, this introduced species may effect sedimentation dynamics, available detritus, benthic algal production, wrack deposition and disturbance, habitat structure for native wetland animals, benthic invertebrate populations, and shorebird and wading bird foraging areas. *** DIRECT SUPPORT *** A01BY058 00013     

The Influence of Wave Energy and Sediment Transport on Seagrass Distribution

A coupled hydrodynamic and sediment transport model (Delft3D) was used to simulate the water levels, waves, and currents associated with a seagrass (Zostera marina) landscape along a 4-km stretch of coast in Puget Sound, WA, USA. A hydroacoustic survey of seagrass percent cover and nearshore bathymetry was conducted, and sediment grain size was sampled at 53 locations. Wave energy is a primary factor controlling seagrass distribution at the site, accounting for 73% of the variability in seagrass minimum depth and 86% of the variability in percent cover along the shallow, sandy portions of the coast. A combination of numerical simulations and a conceptual model of the effect of sea-level rise on the cross-shore distribution of seagrass indicates that the area of seagrass habitat may initially increase and that wave dynamics are an important factor to consider in predicting the effect of sea-level rise on seagrass distributions in wave-exposed areas.     

The effects of crude oil and remediation burning on three clones of smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora loisel.)

Burning has been employed as an oil spill remediation technique in coastal marshes, even though the combined and interactive effects of oil and burning on vegetation are poorly understood. Variation among clones of perennial marsh grasses in response to these perturbations is not known. We performed a greenhouse experiment designed to assess the effects of Venezuelan crude oil alone and of oil followed by burning on three clonal genets ofSpartina alterniflora. The fully-crossed 6-mo experiment involved five dosages of oil (0 l m⁻², 4 l m⁻², 8 l m⁻², 16 l m⁻², and 24 l m⁻²) and two burn treatments (burned or unburned) applied to ramets from three clones. All oil-only dosages reduced survival, but burning after oiling (oil + burn treatments) increased survival relative to oil-only groups in all except the highest two oil dosages. Higher oil-only treatments also reduced ramet densities and inhibited density increases over 6 mo. Burning after treatment with the 16 l m⁻² oil concentration allowed increased production of new ramets, but burning exacerbated the negative impacts on ramet density at the oil concentration of 24 l m⁻². At some intermediate oil dosages, burning remediated the negative effects of oil on aboveground biomass production and growth in height. There was a significant effect of oil-only treatments on numbers of flowering ramets produced, in which two clones responded with decreased flower production and one exhibited increased flowering. There was no main effect of oil + burn on flowering. There were significant among-clones differences in all response variables to one or both treatments. Our experiment demonstrates that burning of oiledS. alterniflora marshes may have little measurable effect at low levels of Venezuelan crude oil, can remediate the effects of oil at intermediate oil concentrations, but can increase the negative impacts at high concentrations of oil. These results indicate that oil spills have the potential to adversely affect genetic diversity inS. alterniflora populations by eliminating some sensitive clonal variants or changing the relative dominance of genets. These results suggest certain clones may be better suited for phytoremediation or restoration planting following oil spills.     

The effects of source,rate and placement of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on growth of Spartina alterniflora transplats in North Carolina

The effects of rate of N and P fertilizer, type of fertilizer material and application method on establishment, growth and tissue nutrient concentrations of Spartina alterniflora were evaluated on an eroding estuarine shoreline. Both N and P were growth limiting factors at the test site. Biomass increased with increasing rates of N and P up to 224 kg per ha N and 49 kg per ha P when ammonium sulfate and concentrated superphosphate were banded at planting. There were only slight increases in growth when either N or P were applied alone. Placement of fertilizer below ground was necessary; there was no growth response to surface application at transplanting time. The slow-release fertilizers, Mag Amp and Osmocote, supplied N over a longer period of time and produced more growth than the other sources of N which were tested. Urea and urea-formaldehyde were ineffective sources of N. Concentrated superphosphate was as effective as the slow-release fertilizers as a source of P. Nitrogen concentrations in fertilized plants which produced more biomass were lower than in those plants stunted by lack of N or P except where near optimum amounts of N were supplied by the slow-release fertilizers. Residual effects of the fertilizer were evident the second growing season but top-dressing with N and P was necessary to maintain a vigorous stand. Accumulation of up to 28 cm of sand in 2 years was evidence of reduction of shoreline erosion.     

The influence of subsurface hydrology on nutrient supply and smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) production in a developing barrier island marsh

The supply of nutrients from surface and subsurface water flow into the root zone was measured in a developing barrier island marsh in Virginia. We hypothesize that high production of tall-formSpartina alterniflora in the lower intertidal zone is due to a greater nitrogen input supplied by a larger subsurface flux. Individual nitrogen inputs to the tall-form and short-formS. alterniflora root zones were calculated from water flow rates into the root zone and the nutrient concentration corresponding to the source of the flow. Total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) input (as ammonium and nitrate) was then calculated using a summation of the hourly nutrient inputs to the root zone over the entire tidal cycle based on hydrologic and nutrient data collected throughout the growing season (April–August) of 1993 and 1994. Additionally, horizontal water flow into the lower intertidal marsh was reduced experimentally to determine its effects on nutrient input and plant growth. Total ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) input to the tall-formS. alterniflora root zone (168 μmoles 6 h^?1) was significantly greater relative to the short-form (45 μmoles 6 h^?1) during flood tide. Total NH₄ ⁺ input was not significantly different between growth forms during ebb tide, and total nitrate (NO₃ ^?) and total DIN input were not significantly different between growth forms during either tidal stage. During tidal flooding, vertical flow from below the root zone accounted for 71% and horizontal flow from the adjacent mudflat accounted for 19% of the total NH₄ ⁺ input to the tall-formS. alterniflora root zone. Infiltration of flooding water accounted for 15% more of the total NO₃ ^? input relative to the total NH₄ ⁺ input at both zones on flood tide. During ebb tide, vertical flow from below the root zone still accounted for the majority of NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^? input to both growth forms. After vertical flow, horizontal subsurface flow from upgradient accounted for the next largest percentages of NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^? input to both growth forms during ebb tide. After 2 yr of interrupted subsurface horizontal flow to the tall-formS. alterniflora root zone, height and nitrogen content of leaf tissue of treatment plants were only slightly, but significantly, lower than control plants. The results suggest that a dynamic supply of DIN (as influenced by subsurface water flows) is a more accurate depiction of nutrient supply to macrophytes in this developing marsh, relative to standing stock nutrient concentrations. The dynamic subsurface supply of DIN may play a role in spatial patterns of abovegroundS. alterniflora production, but determination of additional nitrogen inputs and the role of belowground production on nitrogen demand need to also be considered.     

渭河西安段表层沉积物重金属元素分布及潜在生态风险评价

用X-ray荧光光谱法测定了渭河西安段沉积物中15种重金属元素质量分数,分析了各元素的空间分布特征,并采用Hakanson潜在生态风险指数法评价了As、Cu、Pb、Ni、Cr、Zn 6种重金属元素的潜在生态风险影响.测试结果表明:重金属元素Co、Cr、Fe、Mg、Mo、Al质量分数较高,各采样点位的测量值均高于研究区环境背景值,大部分重金属元素具有相似的水平分布特征,高值区位于渭河中下游河段.潜在生态风险评价结果显示:重金属元素平均污染程度为"中等",除采样点位4的潜在生态风险略高外,其他采样点位的潜在生态风险均较低.潜在生态风险影响程度从大到小的顺序为:As＞Cu＞Pb＞Ni＞Cr＞Zn.     

Growth dynamics of cordgrass,Spartina alterniflora loisel., on control and sewage sludge fertilized plots in a Georgia salt marsh

Seasonal plant growth dynamics were followed for a year in undisturbed plots of tall and short formSpartina alterniflora Loisel. and in plots of short formS. alterniflora which were enriched with sewage sludge at a rate of 100 g dry sludge m^?2wk^?1, corresponding to a nitrogen enrichment of 2 g N m^?2wk^?1. Monthly determinations of aboveground live and dead biomass, density of live stems, the ratio of number of young shoots to total number of shoots, and belowground mass of macro-organic matter to a depth of 30 cm were made for each area. Sludge fertilization increased the live biomass of the short formS. alterniflora by up to 150% of the control live biomass, but had little effect on the dead biomass, stem density, or proportion of young shoots. There was a trend of increased amount of belowground macro-organic matter in fertilized compared to control plots during the last 6 months of the study. In all areas, there was a marked decrease in the proportion of young shoots from winter to early summer, followed by a rapid increase in the percent of young shoots from late summer to fall. Sampling of plots 7 and 20 months after termination of sludge enrichment showed higher plant biomass and % N content in surface soils, but no difference in N content of live plant tissue, in fertilized compared to unfertilized marsh. After 20 months, about half of the sludge nitrogen remaining in the soils of the fertilized plots had disappeared.     

Effects of the Herbicide Diuron on Cordgrass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina foliosa</Emphasis>) Reflectance and Photosynthetic Parameters

Early indicators of salt marsh plant stress are needed to detect stress before it is manifested as changes in biomass and coverage. We explored a variety of leaf-level spectral reflectance and fluorescence variables as indicators of stress in response to the herbicide diuron. Diuron, a Photosystem II inhibitor, is heavily used in areas adjacent to estuaries, but its ecological effects are just beginning to be recognized. In a greenhouse experiment, we exposed Spartina foliosa, the native cordgrass in California salt marshes, to two levels of diuron. After plant exposure to diuron for 28 days, all spectral reflectance indices and virtually all fluorescence parameters indicated reduced pigment and photosynthetic function, verified as reduced CO₂ assimilation. Diuron exposure was not evident, however, in plant morphometry, indicating that reflectance and fluorescence were effective indicators of sub-lethal diuron exposure. Several indices (spectral reflectance index ARI and fluorescence parameters EQY, Fo, and maximum rETR) were sensitive to diuron concentration. In field trials, most of the indices as well as biomass, % cover, and canopy height varied predictably and significantly across a pesticide gradient. In the field, ARI and Fo regressed most significantly and strongly with pesticide levels. The responses of ARI and Fo in both the laboratory and the field make these indices promising as sensitive, rapid, non-destructive indicators of responses of S. foliosa to herbicides in the field. These techniques are employed in remote sensing and could potentially provide a link between landscapes of stressed vegetation and the causative stressor(s), which is crucial for effective regulation of pollution.     

崇明东滩表层沉积物的粒度空间分布特征

经对崇明东滩45个现代表层沉积物样品粒度分析表明：潮滩沉积物绝大部分以淤泥质粉砂为主，平均粒径16．1—46．5μm。沉积物粒度组成具有明显的空间分布特点：高—中—低潮滩依次出现细粉砂、中粉砂和粗粉砂；从潮滩北部至南部，沉积物粒度由细变粗。上述特征与水动力条件基本对应，同时也受到植被分布状况的制约。     

根系土中重金属元素分布特征及在农作物中的迁移

以上海市金山区为对象,分析了农用地土壤重金属元素的形态分布特征,以及元素的有效态（水溶态、离子交换态）与全量、有机质、pH等的相关性;根据重金属元素在稻米、蔬菜等不同农作物中的含量,分析了其迁移及生物有效性。结果表明：不同元素的形态组成差异较大;Pb、Zn、Ni元素的有效态与环境因素（pH、有机质）关系密切;土壤中重金属元素Cd最为活跃且易发生迁移,在多种农作物中有较为明显的富集;稻米中重金属元素的富集程度相对较小。研究成果可为土壤污染治理、种植结构调整、土地合理利用提供有益借鉴。     

Effects of Bioirrigation and Salinity on Arsenic Distributions in Ferruginous Concretions from Salt Marsh Sediment Cores (Southern Brazil)

Arsenic (As), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) contents were measured in sediment nodules and associated pore waters obtained from sediment cores collected from a salt marsh on Pólvora Island (southern Brazil). Sediment cores were obtained when brackish water dominated the estuary, at two different environments: an unvegetated mudflat colonized by crabs (Neohelice granulata), and a low intertidal stand vegetated by Spartina alterniflora. We determined the percentage of nodules in each depth interval of the cores, along with redox potential, and As, Fe, and Mn contents of the nodules. The mineralogy of the nodules was investigated, and results showed they are mainly composed by quartz, phyllosilicates, and amorphous Fe–Mn oxides/oxyhydroxides. Pore water results showed that bioturbation by local crabs supports oxygen penetration to depths of ca. 25 cm below the salt marsh surface, with lower Fe contents in pore water associated with the brackish period. However, S. alterniflora growth appears to have a greater impact on sediment geochemistry of Fe, Mn, and possibly As due to sulfate reduction and the associated decrease in pore water pH. Higher Fe concentrations were observed in the pore waters during the period of brackish water dominance, which also corresponded to the S. alterniflora growth season. The study demonstrates that differences in geochemical conditions (e.g., Fe content) that can develop in salt marsh sediments owing to different types of bioirrigation processes (i.e., bioirrigation driven by crabs versus that related to the growth of S. alterniflora) play important roles in the biogeochemical cycling of As.

     

The Influence of Redox Reactions on the Uptake of Dissolved Ce by Suspended Fe and Mn Oxide Particles

Laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the partitioning ofrare earth elements (REE) between solution and suspended particles. Becauseof their strong tendency to complex, the REE can be used to study a varietyof marine processes and in particular particle scavenging. In this study, anemphasis was placed on examining abiotic redox processes that influence theuptake of dissolved Ce by particles. Batch sorption experiments wereconducted with REE and synthetic mineral phases over the range of pH4–9. The solutions varied in ionic strength between 0 and 0.7 M andconsisted of individual solutes (NaNO₃, NaCl, andNa₂SO₄), ionic mixtures that duplicate theseawater composition, and natural seawater. The uptake of REE from solutionwas also studied at a Pt electrode coated with using cyclic voltametry. Experimental results are consistent with uptake of dissolved Ce onto occurring by a combination of oxidativescavenging and surface complexation. The contribution of oxidativescavenging to the removal of Ce from solution is most pronounced at acidicpH, where the strictly trivalent REE exhibit little propensity for sorptiononto . Sorption of dissolved Ce onto FeOOH occursin a manner analogous to that of the other strictly trivalent REE and nocontribution from oxidative scavenging is observed on this mineral phase atlow pH. Our work also substantiates the hypothesis that anions in solution,particularly and Cl^-, aswell as those adsorbed on the surface of the particles, influence the extentof Ce uptake by . This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

海南四更沙海域沉积物分布及其受控机制

基于海南西部四更沙及其邻近海域185个底质的粒度数据,并结合研究区动力状况和水深地形特征,研究表层沉积物的组分和类型分布、粒度参数及其沉积环境分区。结果表明:①研究区沉积物类型多样,包括12种沉积类型,以砂质粉砂、粉砂、粉砂质砂和含砾砂为主,沉积物平均粒径变化范围较大(-0.70~7.13 φ),且大体呈现由北向南逐渐变细的分布趋势;②运用Fleming的三角图式,结合物源状况及地形地貌条件,对沉积环境进行划分,将研究区划分为四更沙岸外海滨沉积区、北黎湾中部沉积区和八所港近岸沉积区等3个沉积区;③研究区沉积物分布特征受沉积物来源和水动力及地形条件共同影响。横向分布上,西部主要受强潮流输沙影响,东部近岸则主要受波浪掀沙和搬运作用影响,表现为两侧粗,中间相对较细的特征。纵向上,四更沙岸外海滨沉积区,沉积物主要受昌化江影响,粒径粗,表现为河口沉积特征;北黎湾中部沉积区,沉积物粒径分布范围广,表现为较强的过渡区特性;八所港近岸沉积区,沉积物粒径最细,泥沙来源主要为外海带来的泥沙。     

石家庄近地表降尘重金属的分布特征及来源分析

系统采集了石家庄市区范围近地表降尘并分析了As、Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Ni、Pb、Zn重金属元素的含量,通过元素含量统计分析,发现它们存在较大的变异性,表明重金属含量的空间分布极不均匀。应用地统计模块中的Kriging空间插值分析方法和成图分析,可以看出市区内As、Cd、Cr、Cu呈大面积高值分布,Hg、Ni、Pb、Zn多呈点状污染分布。利用主成分因子分析和重金属元素源指示分析,认为石家庄市区近地表降尘重金属的主要贡献源以燃煤和交通为主。这为全面了解石家庄市区的空气质量状况并为该市大气环境污染治理、城市规划提供了重要依据。     

Effect of Complexing Agents (EDTA and ATMP) on the Remobilization of Heavy Metals from a Polluted River Sediment

EDTA and ATMP are synthetic chelatingagents used in many industrial applications. Becauseof their low biodegradability, they are present inmany aquatic systems where their strong complexingcapacities can modify the transfer of toxic heavymetals between solid and liquid phases.The remobilization of Cu, Pb and Cd from pollutedsuperficial river sediments in the presence of twosynthetic organic ligands (a polycarboxylate, EDTA,and a phosphonate, ATMP) is investigated as a functionof reaction time to determine the time necessary toreach dissolutive equilibrium, and as a fonction ofthe complexing agent concentration.The dissolutive equilibrium times are similar (10 to20 hours) and the solubilizing power of ATMP isslightly lower than that of EDTA. The curves ofsolubilization of metals in the presence of thecomplexing agents present a shape of a chelateconcentration desorption edge, for a chelate rangebetween 10^-5 to 10^-3 mol L^-1, thesolubilised metals increasing dramatically. Thisremobilization is the result of a competition betweenassociation with the solid phase and dissolvedcomplexation. With EDTA, the desorption order ofmetals seems to be imposed by association with thesolid. For ATMP is it the chelate complexing strengthwhich determines this order.