A Review of “The Experience of Return Migration: Caribbean Perspectives”

Abstract

Commuting in Italy has always been addressed without regard to gender differences. Following the issuance of a comprehensive database by the National Statistical Institute, it is now possible to analyze gender differences in personal mobility for the first time in Italy. For our analyses we used Local Labor Systems (LLS) zoning in lieu of administrative zoning. LLSs are territorial subdivisions based on the principle of a self-contained labor market and are widely used in Italy. This article also reports the results of a multidimensional data analysis aimed at highlighting relations between different gender-based commuting patterns and a set of variables (education level, age, household structure, occupational category, and position, etc.). The analysis points out gender differences in the relationship among commuting and socioeconomic characteristics, reveals that these relationships are in turn related to the economic structure and geographical context of different regional labor markets, and suggests to analysts that they be sensitive to singular context when interpreting the meaning of gender differences in commuting.

     

THE IMPACT OF FAMILY STATUS ON BLACK,WHITE, AND HISPANIC WOMEN'S COMMUTING

The relationship between women's domestic labor and employment in the paid labor force is central to current debates about gender inequities in occupations and incomes. Recent studies of gender differences in commuting argue that women reduce the journey to work to accommodate the demands of family responsibilities. The empirical evidence, however, is mixed. Equal numbers of studies have reported significant andinsignificant relationships between average commuting times and various measures of domestic responsibilities. Few of these studies have examined the implications of parenthood and, particularly, single parenthood, for the commuting patterns of women from various racial and ethnic backgrounds. Women who are single parents may work closer to home than other women because of their substantial domestic responsibilities. On the other hand, as sole wage earners, single parents may travel long times to obtain better paid employment. Using information about a sample of women in the New York Consolidated Metropolitan Area, we compared the average commuting times of black, Hispanic, and white women from single and two-parent households. The presence and ages of children significantly reduced all women's commuting times, although the effects of parenthood were muted for minority women. Single mothers commuted longer than married mothers, but the size of the disparity depended upon a woman's racial/ethnic background and place of residence. All single mothers commuted shorter times in the suburbs than at the center, but the differences were greatest for minority women living in the suburbs.     

A Review of “Rebuilding Urban Places After Disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina”

Women's earnings, employment, and commutes have generally lagged men's. Geographers emphasize the effects of women's gender roles on their spatial entrapment as limiting their job opportunities and labor market status. This research methodologically advances spatial entrapment research by utilizing a national model of commuting with spatial fixed effects to make more accurate predictions and generalizations. Second, this research found that a control group of same-sex partners allows for more direct isolation and measurement of the gender role effect on women's commutes. This research concluded that women's gender roles are negatively affecting their commuting range and, therefore, their labor market status.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE JOURNEY TO WORK

It is now well established in geographic research that women commute shorter distances to work than men. This paper attempts to explore the common features that have emerged from the last two decades of research in various places within a metropolitan context. Three main sets of factors that may cause women to commute shorter distances are recognized: residence, employment, and transportation—each containing both social and spatial aspects. The analysis is centered around the spatial aspect. Most research on employed women seems to be characterized by distinguishing between the central city and the suburbs and thus the conclusions focus mostly upon this. An international comparison of different places shows that gender differences in commuting almost always are greater in the suburbs, from the point of view of both residential and employment dispersions. Directions for future research are suggested. Comparable methodologies will enable the inclusion of additional cities and will broaden the comparison. The examination of gender differences from the perspective of the dispersion of workplaces in metropolitan space should be further developed and analyzed according to a finer spatial scale than that used in looking at the central city vs. the suburbs. It also is suggested that factors of employment and residence should be analyzed differently so that qualitative methods may generate a greater significance for the factors associated with the domestic context. Finally, the investigation of gender differences in commuting and in the location of both residence and employment could lead to consideration of new conceptual frameworks for possible interaction between land used for both purposes within urban space.     

Race,Gender, and Spatial Segmentation in the Twin Cities*

This study analyzes commuting trends in a relatively vibrant setting during the 1980s to determine (a) how labor market segmentation correlates with differences in the spatial dimensions of local labor markets, and (b) whether this link represents a direct spatial effect, independent of earnings, travel mode, and part-time work. I use 1980 and 1990 PUMS data to analyze changes in racial and gender divisions in the workforce, and I develop an estimate of work trip distance to adjust for different travel modes. For all groups except white men, employment in a job “typical” of one's gender and racial group is associated with more localized commutes, but this effect is strongly mediated by variations in earnings and part-time work. Using a covariance structure model to control for these effects, I find no independent link between segmentation and longer commutes among African Americans. Earnings and commute distances remained unchanged over the decade for African Americans, providing no evidence of a purely spatial mismatch manifest in lengthening work trips without corresponding wage gains. The spatial dimensions of an employment mismatch for inner-city minorities are concealed through the replacement of production jobs by poorly paid service work in the expanding downtown economy of a vibrant regional center.     

Racial Variations in Males' Commuting Times in Atlanta: What Does the Evidence Suggest?*

Using a sample from the comparatively most privileged group of black males, those married and living with a working spouse, this article investigates how race‐based residential locations and the spatial structure of labor markets affect commuting experiences. This research uses the most sophisticated commuting data available at the time the research was conducted, the 1990 5 percent Public‐Use Microdata Samples for the Atlanta Metropolitan Area, and again confirms severe spatial mismatch problems for central‐city blacks, regardless of socioeconomic status, household formation, and access to automobiles. However, the situation with black males living in suburban areas differs significantly as those in the southern (predominantly black) suburbs show considerable evidence of spatial mismatch, whereas the northern (predominantly white) suburbs show no such evidence.     

西方城市女性时空行为研究的新趋势及其对中国的启示

为满足当前城市社会发展与城市建设需要,西方女性时空行为研究近年来取得了长足进展,研究主题覆盖行为特征、社会公平、可持续性等方面。中国城市女性在转型期同样面临着重大的挑战,城市空间的性别不平等正在深刻地影响女性的日常行为与生活质量。本文系统梳理了近50年来西方女性时空行为研究成果,介绍了女性通勤行为、非工作活动等传统议题和家庭关系、联合行为、可达性等新问题的研究进展,并总结了女性时空行为研究的理论解释。西方女性时空行为研究早期关注经济转型背景下的女性出行行为,对就业可达性、通勤和非工作活动的性别差异进行了大量研究。近年来,西方研究呈现出多元化趋势,研究重点转向家庭关系、家庭联合行为与时空可达性等新主题,指出女性在日常生活中面临社会排斥与空间不平等。为理解女性时空行为模式的形成机制,学者从经济学、社会学、地理学等角度进行探讨,提出了地租与工资理论、劳动力市场隔离理论、家庭责任假说、女性的自我认知与社会文化、家庭资源分配说、时空固定性制约等解释理论。这些研究为中国城市女性时空行为研究提供了借鉴。针对中国女性面临的城市社会转型的独特背景,其时空行为受制度、家庭和自身的多重制约,提出了中国城市女性时空行为研究的框架和未来研究方向。     

城市空间结构对居民通勤行为的影响研究 ——以成都市和兰州市为例

借鉴国外过剩通勤理论,构建了城市空间结构对居民通勤行为影响度公式,并利用大规模问卷调查获取的通勤数据进行实证研究,定量分析了不同城市空间结构对居民通勤行为的影响程度。研究发现,城市空间结构对居民通勤行为的影响程度要小于个体社会经济属性对居民通勤的影响程度,因此,为了减少通勤,既要调整城市空间结构,更要减少个体自由选择职住区位的制度性约束;与单中心城市相比,各组团内部职住平衡度较高的多中心城市,在减少居民通勤距离,提高城市通勤效率方面具有更大的优势。     

Exploring urban commuting imbalance by jobs and gender

Previous findings support that distance matters for job access. Typically, long distances act negatively on job access either due to the lack of information about the opportunities or the cost (time, transportation, etc.). Disparities in job access are explained with the workers’ demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and their spatial condition. Nevertheless, job access was not fully explored in multi-dimensional ways because of data and computational limitations. Recently, the wealth of commuting data, combined with the growing capacity of computation and methodological development, enables us to examine more commuting pattern details than what existing data provide at an aggregate level. This study uses a disaggregate journey-to-work model on 2000 Census Transportation Planning Package (CTPP) commuting data to investigate access to job by gender and occupation, in a more localized context. To explore this varying degree of job access and associated explanation, we analyzed disaggregate commuting flows and ran a regression model on them. This study has three main objectives: (1) to disaggregate journey-to-work flows by gender and occupation to estimate the number of commute trips between census tracts, (2) to explore the variations in job access by gender and occupation, and (3) to draw relationships between job access and various worker’s situations. The results show the details of commuting patterns, suggesting that some occupations have more gender imbalance than others. Further, the findings indicate that the same demographic, socioeconomic and spatial conditions have different effects on workers, and the effect is related to the workers’ demographic-socioeconomic status in complex ways. Unlike conventional research in which a particular worker group is compared to a control group of opposite characteristics, our methodology makes it possible to examine an overview of all the job and gender groups, providing advantages in 2-way comparisons between gender and occupation groups beyond a conventional comparison between two groups. Therefore, our study adds an additional dimension to the conventional comparison.     

基于家庭生命历程的北京郊区居民行为空间研究

郊区居民行为空间研究是解读郊区空间的重要方面之一,当前的研究多基于汇总的个体数据,从家庭层面出发的微观研究较少。本文运用质性研究方法,选取居住在北京五环至六环之间的3个不同类型的家庭开展实证研究,旨在通过以家庭为单元的行为空间研究,丰富对郊区居民行为空间的理解。研究发现：家庭的生命历程与家庭成员的日常行为之间存在一定的辩证关系。生命历程中的重要生命事件,包括迁居、就业选择、家庭结构变化、家内成员的社会角色变化等,会通过改变地理背景、移动性和家庭内部的责任分工,影响每一个成员的惯常活动模式。家庭内部的资源分配和时间安排形成了家庭成员一段时间内相对固定的行为模式,但当部分因素改变时,家庭也会通过一定的协调机制来响应家庭成员所遇到的制约,以便家庭成员能够更好的完成日常生活所需的各类活动。     

基于多智能体的就业与居住空间演化多情景模拟——快速工业化区域研究

就业与居住空间关系是城市规划与管理研究的热点问题。已有研究主要基于传统宏观模型对就业—居住空间结构进行现状分析或对城市理论进行实证研究,在微观尺度的机制探讨与过程模拟方面较为缺乏。本文基于多智能体自下而上的建模思想,提出基于就业市场的人口居住区位选择模型(Labor Market Based Model of Residential Location-LMBMRL)。以典型的快速工业化地区—东莞市主城区为实验区,通过多情景模拟对就业与居住空间的互动关系进行机制探讨与过程分析。模拟结果充分反映了就业选择对人口居住区位决策的影响,定量评估了住房与交通对职住空间均衡性与职住分离的影响规律。当住房成本提高时,城市职住均衡性降低;当交通可达性提高时,城市空间结构可能出现较为显著的职住分离现象。最后通过多情景模拟揭示不同行业劳动人口群体的就业—居住空间特征与组织模式。研究结果有助于深刻理解城市就业—居住空间互动关系及其内部因果,能够为城市规划与管理提供决策参考。     

北京大型居住区居民通勤行为对比研究——以望京居住区和天通苑居住区为例

郊区化的过程中,居住-就业均衡性存在解体和重构的过程。以北京郊区两个大型居住区——望京居住区和天通苑居住区作为研究对象,通过问卷调查的方式获取了居民居住、就业以及通勤等方面的相关数据。研究表明:通勤时间较长是近郊大型居住区居民的共性,但由于大型居住区功能定位的差异以及所在区位和道路体系的差异,单一型居住区和混合型居住区也存在高峰通勤出行时间、通勤工具选择和通勤流向等通勤行为的差异。对这些主要影响因素加以合理规划,对解决郊区化过程造成的制住分离加剧问题具有重要作用。     

多中心城市中山市职住空间关系特征

以低密度多中心城市——中山市为例,采取政府主导的居民出行调查数据库中40445 个调查样本,应用ArcGIS 等分析工具,利用居民出行调查数据库中的个体属性与职住地点等信息,对居民职住比、通勤时间、通勤距离和通勤方向进行可视化,分析中山居民的职住空间关系格局。结果表明：职住比、通勤时间、通勤距离在空间上有一定的区域差异,但圈层结构均不明显。全市职住空间分布整体较均匀,主城区职住基本平衡;周边镇区尤其是西北组团、东部组团职住比高,而主城区较低。全市平均通勤时间和通勤距离均显著低于国内大城市和发达国家城市。主城区和外围镇区间的通勤量及其比重小,全市没有产生大规模的外围―中心“钟摆式”通勤,在通勤方向上更多表现为内―内通勤和外―外通勤。居民的职住关系空间分布特征与城市空间结构、人口结构、产业结构与产业布局、土地利用以及交通设施建设具有密切的关系,低密度多中心的城市职住平衡程度高、通勤时间和通勤距离均较短,而主城区与外围镇区通勤联系不紧密。     

转型期广州市城市居民职住空间与通勤行为研究

以广州市2001年、2005年和2010年大型家庭社会调查为基础,研究了广州市城市居民职住空间和通勤行为的演化,从微观层面分析城市居民职住空间分离和城市通勤行为的影响因素。结果表明：2000年以来广州市城市居民职住空间分离趋势较为明显,但通勤成本仍然是城市居民居住区位或工作地选择过程的重要考虑因素;通过使用职住空间平衡测量指标来测度城市职住空间平衡的空间差异,研究结果显示：内圈层存在最为严重的职住空间失衡,而随着近年来广州市产业和居住郊区化进程的突飞猛进,城市郊区的职住空间失衡状况有明显改善,职住空间平衡率大幅度提升。从通勤行为来看,广州市城市居民使用传统的通勤方式比重最高,家庭收入、文化程度、住房产权和性质状况、工作单位性质等城市居民通勤行为显著影响通勤方式。     

The Gendering of Philippine International Labor Migration*

This paper provides an institutional analysis of the use of gender as an organizing principle for labor migration flows. Through a case study of the marketing and recruitment strategies of Philippine government and private institutions, I examine how gendered representations contribute to divergent patterns of male and female labor migrants from the Philippines. Representations, or controlling images, are used by institutions to provide explanations or justification of a policy. Findings indicate that the global marketing of workers is organized around specific gendered assumptions of male versus female occupations. Recruitment strategies are also influenced by gendered representations of occupations, locations, and workers. The use of gender by government and private institutions as an organizing device provides a gendered context in which migrants and their households must subsequently operate.     

重庆市公共租赁住房社区居民的职住空间匹配

居住与就业间的空间组织是城市空间结构的重要组成要素之一,国外自20 世纪60 年代提出后引发了大量关于弱势群体居住和就业空间机会及其关系的实证研究。近年来在中国城市快速空间重构的背景下,中低收入群体的职住分离现象也引起广泛关注。运用职住空间错位理论,以重庆市主城区公共租赁住房社区为案例进行研究,对541 份有效问卷的统计分析表明:① 公共租赁住房居民搬迁前通勤距离与通勤时间的均值分别从6.5 km与32 min,增加到搬迁后的15 km与52 min;② Logit回归分析表明,群体类型对公共租赁住房居民通勤时间差异影响最为显著,年龄与居民通勤时间呈负相关关系,性别与年龄对通勤时间产生较显著影响。③ 公共租赁住房供应的政策性因素造成了被动迁移型空间不匹配现象,是其住户的区位选择与主要就业场所不匹配而引发的,因此需要深入研究公共租赁住房合理的空间布局方案和实施途径,尽可能将公共租赁住房区位规划在内城。     

基于决策树法的北京城市居民通勤距离模式挖掘

以问卷调查数据为基础,引进决策树分析方法,讨论了北京市城市居民通勤距离模式。研究发现:第一,在设定的修剪纯度下,北京城市居民通勤距离远近与出行工具、居住地变更、职业、居住地就业率、最小孩子求学状况、住房面积、家庭月收入、机动车利用状况密切相关;第二,在影响城市居民通勤距离的变量中,出行工具变量的重要性最大,其次是住房面积变量、最小孩子求学变量,再次为居住地变更变量、职业变量,家庭月收入变量为第四等级,机动车使用变量和本地就业率为第五等级。第三,因住房产权复杂性、迁居原因的多样性、被动郊区化以及生产、育儿福利及家庭内部事务分工等因素的影响,住房面积、迁居史、家庭生命周期、职业与通勤距离的关系与国内已有结论相悖,部分变量因子对短距离通勤具有决定性影响,部分变量对于长距离通勤有决定性影响。     

Modeling Commuting Patterns in Chicago in a GIS Environment: A Job Accessibility Perspective

Using the newly released Census for Transportation Planning Package (CTPP) 1990, this research utilizes GIS tools to explain intraurban variations of commuting in Chicago at the Traffic Analysis Zone (TAZ) level. While commute times are directly available from the CTPP, commute distances are derived from the shortest time distances through real‐world road networks. GIS surface modeling is used to help identify the major employment center (CBD) and other subcenters. The explanations of commute times and distances are attempted by various measures of job accessibility: the jobs‐housing balance ratio defined in a floating catchment area, distances from the CBD and subcenters, and a gravity‐based index that takes the effects of all jobs into account. These measurements better explain how far people commute than how much time they spend on commuting. The best model explains over 50% of the variation of commuting among 7,835 TAZs. This is a significant improvement over existing literature, which at best explained less than 30 percent.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN COMMUTING DISTANCE,RESIDENCE, AND EMPLOYMENT LOCATION: METROPOLITAN HAIFA 1972 AND 1983*

This paper highlights three major aspects of gender differences in employment in Haifa, Israel (1972 and 1983): commuting distance, place of residence, and employment location. In 1972 working womenaposs residences were more central-city-oriented, whereas in 1983 they were more suburbanized. Commuting distances increased between 1972 and 1983 for both sexes, but more for men than for women. This shorter “female'’distance is related to the location of employment and its occupational segregation. The lower commuting values in Haifa compared to other places relate to the size, housing patterns, and structure of the study area, and to its levels of suburbanization and automobile ownership.     

Study on the synergy between intra-urban resident’s migration and job change in Beijing

People’s decisions of residential mobility in housing market and decisions of job change in labor market play an essential role in the formation and dynamics of urban spatial structure. This paper investigates the relationship between residential relocation and job change and its heterogeneity using a large-scale survey of residential living satisfaction and preferences in Beijing. Several conclusions are drawn as follows: 1) People’s decisions of residential mobility are significantly positively correlated with their decisions of job change, indicating that these two-dimensional decisions are in fact a correlated decision process rather than two independent decision processes. 2) There is heterogeneity in the correlated decisions of residential mobility and job change. More specifically, the interrelationship between the decisions of residential mobility and job change among people without Beijing hukou, renters and single-worker households is more intensive than people with Beijing hukou, homeowners and multi-worker households. In addition, there is heterogeneity in the determinants of residential relocation and job change between groups with different types of housing tenure, household registration status and family employment structure. 3) For renters, commuting time can significantly increase the probability of residential relocation, which indicates that residents of different socioeconomic attributes have very different responses to commuting time costs.