Testing for similarity in area‐based spatial patterns: Alternative methods to Andresen's spatial point pattern test

Andresen's spatial point pattern test (SPPT) compares two spatial point patterns on defined areal units; it identifies areas where the spatial point patterns diverge and aggregates these local (dis)similarities to one global measure. We discuss the limitations of the SPPT and provide two alternative methods to calculate differences in the point patterns. In the first approach we use differences in proportions tests corrected for multiple comparisons. We show how the size of differences matters, as with large point patterns many areas will be identified by SPPT as statistically different, even if those differences are substantively trivial. The second approach uses multinomial logistic regression, which can be extended to identify differences in proportions over continuous time. We demonstrate these methods by identifying areas where pedestrian stops by the New York City Police Department are different from violent crimes for 2006–2016.     

Mapping local regression for spatial object-pairs

Local regression methods such as geographically weighted regression (GWR) can provide specific information about individual locations (or places) in spatial analysis that is useful for mapping nonstationary covariate relationships. However, the distance-based weighting schemes used in GWR are only adaptable for spatial objects that are point or area features. In particular, spatial object-pairs pose a challenge for local analysis because they have a linear dimensionality rather than a point dimensionality. This paper proposes using an alternative local regression model – quantile regression (QR) – for investigating the stationarity of regression parameters with respect to these linear features as well as facilitating the visualization of the results. An empirical example of a gravity model analysis of trade patterns within Europe is used to illustrate the utility of the proposed method.     

空间分析在油料信息管理系统中的应用

本文主要介绍空间分析在油料信息管理系统中的应用.介绍了油料信息管理系统中基础底图数据、道路拓扑数据和油料专题数据的组织方式,奠定了空间分析的基础.油料信息管理系统中的空间分析功能主要有基本的地图量算、油料资源查询和最短路优化分析.结合油料输送的实际,引入邻近点动态加入法对Dijkstra最短路算法进行了改进,并能实现运...     

Dealing with spatial relations for spatial objects with randomness in GIS

To design retrieval algorithm of spatial relations for spatial objects with randomness in GIS, this paper builds up the membership functions based on set theory idea, used for determination of topological spatial relations between random objects, such as between point and point, point and line or polygon, which provides theoretical basis for retrieving spatial relations between certain and random objects. Finally, this paper interprets detailed methods and steps of realizing them by means of some simple examples under the GIS's environment.     

DEALING WITH SPATIAL RELATIONS FOR SPATIAL OBJECTS WITH RANDOMNESS IN GIS

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Fractal characterization of the spatial distribution of geological point processes

Geological point processes can be used to model point patterns occurring frequently in a wide variety of geoscience fields, including the study of mineral deposits, oil producing wells, earthquakes, and landslides. Characterization of the spatial distribution of GPP has implications for understanding the properties of the underlying geological processes and events. Three examples of GPP dealing with (1) metallic mineral deposits, (2) oil producing wells, and (3) aftershocks of the Wenchuan earthquake (on 12 May 2008, magnitude 8.0) are presented to illustrate that (1) the spatial distribution of geological point processes generally shows clustering implying rejection of the Poisson model because L(r) > L_Pois(r); (2) the clustering statistics of the underlying geological processes are fractal; and (3) the size distribution of geological point processes is scale invariant. These results indicate existence of a fundamental law concerning the fractal nature of the point distributions generated by geological point processes.     

GeoSurveillance: a GIS-based system for the detection and monitoring of spatial clusters

This article introduces a software package named GeoSurveillance that combines spatial statistical techniques and GIS routines to perform tests for the detection and monitoring of spatial clustering. GeoSurveillance provides both retrospective and prospective tests. While retrospective tests are applied to spatial data collected for a particular point in time, prospective tests attempt to incorporate the dynamic nature of spatial patterns via analyzing time-series data to detect emergent clusters as quickly as possible. This article will outline the structure of GeoSurveillance as well as describe the statistical cluster detection methods implemented in the software. It concludes with an illustration of the use of the software to analyze the spatial pattern of low birth weights in Los Angeles County, California.      

An optimal parameters-based geographical detector model enhances geographic characteristics of explanatory variables for spatial heterogeneity analysis: cases with different types of spatial data

ABSTRACT

Spatial heterogeneity represents a general characteristic of the inequitable distributions of spatial issues. The spatial stratified heterogeneity analysis investigates the heterogeneity among various strata of explanatory variables by comparing the spatial variance within strata and that between strata. The geographical detector model is a widely used technique for spatial stratified heterogeneity analysis. In the model, the spatial data discretization and spatial scale effects are fundamental issues, but they are generally determined by experience and lack accurate quantitative assessment in previous studies. To address this issue, an optimal parameters-based geographical detector (OPGD) model is developed for more accurate spatial analysis. The optimal parameters are explored as the best combination of spatial data discretization method, break number of spatial strata, and spatial scale parameter. In the study, the OPGD model is applied in three example cases with different types of spatial data, including spatial raster data, spatial point or areal statistical data, and spatial line segment data, and an R “GD” package is developed for computation. Results show that the parameter optimization process can further extract geographical characteristics and information contained in spatial explanatory variables in the geographical detector model. The improved model can be flexibly applied in both global and regional spatial analysis for various types of spatial data. Thus, the OPGD model can improve the overall capacity of spatial stratified heterogeneity analysis. The OPGD model and its diverse solutions can contribute to more accurate, flexible, and efficient spatial heterogeneity analysis, such as spatial patterns investigation and spatial factor explorations.     

纹理频谱分析的高分辨率遥感影像最佳尺度选择

基于对纹理频谱的分析提出了一种高分辨率遥感影像最佳尺度的选择方法。首先,分析四种典型地物在傅里 叶变换频域的频谱响应特性。然后,采用点扩散函数对原始影像进行尺度扩展,进而根据地物纹理的径向与角向曲线 随尺度扩展的变化选择最佳尺度。最后,通过分析四种地物在6个尺度下的纹理特征可分性,说明本文方法能客观反映 出地物的尺度效应,具备最佳尺度选择的可行性。利用支持向量机对QuickBird全色影像进行面向对象的分类,实验结 果表明在最佳尺度下可取得较高精度。     

A spatial contextual immune genetic algorithm to building cartographic displacement

In map generalization, displacement is the most frequently used operator to reduce the proximity conflicts caused by reducing scales or other generalization operations. Building displacement can be formalized as a combinatorial optimization problem, and a heuristic or intelligent search algorithm can be borrowed to obtain the solution. In this way, we can explicitly resolve minimum distance conflicts and control positional accuracy during the displacement. However, maintaining spatial relations and patterns of buildings can be challenging. To address spatial conflicts as well as preserve the significant spatial relations and patterns of buildings, we propose a new spatial contextual displacement algorithm based on an immune genetic algorithm. To preserve important spatial relations and global patterns of map objects and avoid topology errors, displacement safety zones are constructed by overlapping the Voronoi tessellation and buffer areas of the buildings. Additionally, a strategy to shift the buildings in a building group synchronously is used to maintain local building patterns. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our algorithm, two data sets with different building densities were tested. The results indicate that the new algorithm has obvious advantages in preventing topology errors and preserving spatial relations and patterns.     

Multi‐scale approach to mining significant spatial co‐location patterns

Spatial co‐location pattern mining aims to discover a collection of Boolean spatial features, which are frequently located in close geographic proximity to each other. Existing methods for identifying spatial co‐location patterns usually require users to specify two thresholds, i.e. the prevalence threshold for measuring the prevalence of candidate co‐location patterns and distance threshold to search the spatial co‐location patterns. However, these two thresholds are difficult to determine in practice, and improper thresholds may lead to the misidentification of useful patterns and the incorrect reporting of meaningless patterns. The multi‐scale approach proposed in this study overcomes this limitation. Initially, the prevalence of candidate co‐location patterns is measured statistically by using a significance test, and a non‐parametric model is developed to construct the null distribution of features with the consideration of spatial auto‐correlation. Next, the spatial co‐location patterns are explored at multi‐scales instead of single scale (or distance threshold) discovery. The validity of the co‐location patterns is evaluated based on the concept of lifetime. Experiments on both synthetic and ecological datasets show that spatial co‐location patterns are discovered correctly and completely by using the proposed method; on the other hand, the subjectivity in discovery of spatial co‐location patterns is reduced significantly.     

Mining knowledge from result comparison between spatial clustering themes

This paper introduces some definitions and defines a set of calculating indexes to facilitate the research, and then presents an algorithm to complete the spatial clustering result comparison between different clustering themes. The research shows that some valuable spatial correlation patterns can be further found from the clustering result comparison with multi-themes, based on traditional spatial clustering as the first step. Those patterns can tell us what relations those themes have, and thus will help us have a deeper understanding of the studied spatial entities. An example is also given to demonstrate the principle and process of the method.     

The hierarchical tessellation model and its use in spatial analysis

The hierarchid tessellation model belongs to a class of spatial data models based on the recursive decomposition of space. The quadtree is one such tessellation and is characterized by square cells and a 1:4 decomposition ratio. To relax these constraints in the tessellation, a generalized hierarchical tessellation data model, called Adaptive Recursive Tessellations (ART), has been proposed. ART increases flexibility in the tessellation by the use of rectangular cells and variable decomposition ratios. In ART, users can specify cell sizes which are intuitively meaningful to their applications, or which can reflect the scales of data. ART is implemented in a data structure called Adaptive Recursive Run-Encoding (ARRE), which is a variant of two-dimensional run-encoding whose running path can vary with the different tessellation structures incorporated in an ART model. Given the recognition of the benefits of implementing statistical spatial analysis in GIS, the use of hierarchical tessellation models such as ART in spatial analysis is discussed. Three examples are introduced to show how ART can: (1) be applied to solve the quadrat size problem in quadrat analysis of point patterns; (2) act as the data model in the variable resolution block kriging technique for geostatistical data to reduce variation in kriging error; and (3) facilitate the evaluation of spatial autocorrelation for area data at multiple map resolutions via the construction of a connectivity matrix for calculating spatial autocorrelation indices based on ARRE.     

顾及空间分布与注记相关性的点要素注记配置算法EI北大核心CSCD

点状要素注记自动配置问题是数据可视化研究的难点之一。稠密型点状要素注记之间往往存在着较大的相关性和冲突性,从而导致注记效率低下及配置结果不合理的问题。本文通过充分挖掘稠密型点状要素的空间分布特征和注记相关性,提出了一种顾及空间分布与注记相关性的点要素注记配置算法。首先,充分挖掘点要素的局部空间分布特征和注记间的相关性构建注记关联度模型;其次,利用基于注记关联度模型的空间聚类算法对其整体空间分布特征进行描述和分析,将单一数据集划分为若干个独立的子数据集,以消除整体求解中独立数据集产生的干扰性和模糊性;最后,利用点要素的局部空间分布特征和注记相关性构建基于增序注记关联度模型的注记次序规则,并采用多层次元启发算法求解注记配置的近似最优解。试验结果表明:在5%~40%注记密度下的点要素注记配置,新算法较传统元启发式算法的求解效率提高10.41%~28.92%,注记质量评价函数值下降5.5~35.9,有效提升了点要素注记配置的效率和质量。     

Testing spatial patterns and growth spillover effects in clusters of cities

 This paper analyzes the spatial patterns of households' distribution in clusters of cities and the effects on regional growth using spatial exploratory techniques and a model of growth that incorporates spatial location. Our empirical analysis shows that, over the 1980–1990 period, in Southern New England, patterns of spatial clustering of households did create heterogeneous growth rates in the region. Also, there is evidence that clusters of cities and isolated cities created spillover growth effects in bordering towns. Received: 5 September 2001 / Accepted: 2 August 2002     

Extracting spatial patterns in bicycle routes from crowdsourced data

Much is done nowadays to provide cyclists with safe and sustainable road infrastructure. Its development requires the investigation of road usage and interactions between traffic commuters. This article is focused on exploiting crowdsourced user‐generated data, namely GPS trajectories collected by cyclists and road network infrastructure generated by citizens, to extract and analyze spatial patterns and road‐type use of cyclists in urban environments. Since user‐generated data shows data‐deficiencies, we introduce tailored spatial data‐handling processes for which several algorithms are developed and implemented. These include data filtering and segmentation, map‐matching and spatial arrangement of GPS trajectories with the road network. A spatial analysis and a characterization of road‐type use are then carried out to investigate and identify specific spatial patterns of cycle routes. The proposed analysis was applied to the cities of Amsterdam (The Netherlands) and Osnabrück (Germany), proving its feasibility and reliability in mining road‐type use and extracting pattern information and preferences. This information can help users who wish to explore friendlier and more interesting cycle patterns, based on collective usage, as well as city planners and transportation experts wishing to pinpoint areas most in need of further development and planning.     

3DGIS中空间对象的存储与快速查询

空间对象的存储和快速查询是三维地理信息系统研究的基本问题。本文采用面向对象的方法将三维空间对象抽象为点、线、面、体四类,点对象用一个坐标点(x,y,z)来表示,线对象用一组首尾相接的线段表示,面对象与体对象用三角网表示,然后采用SQL Server 2005来组织存储数据。为了提高空间数据库的检索速度,作者编程实现了线性八叉树空间索引,应用程序采用目前比较流行的ADO.net技术来访问数据库。     

基于场论的空间聚类算法

从空间数据场的角度出发,提出了一种适用于空间聚类的场——凝聚场,并给出了一种新的空间聚类度量指标(即凝聚力)。进而,提出了一种基于场论的空间聚类算法(简称FTSC算法)。该算法根据凝聚力的矢量计算获取每个实体的邻近实体,通过递归搜索的策略,生成一系列不同的空间簇。通过模拟实验验证、经典算法比较和实际应用分析,发现所提出的算法具有3个方面的优势:(1)不需要用户输入参数;(2)能够发现任意形状的空间簇;(3)能够很好适应空间数据分布不均匀的特性。     

地图兴趣点分布式空间分析服务

针对互联网地图上海量兴趣点的应用分析需要提高效率的问题,该文利用MongoDB设计并搭建了一个分布式集群,对这些互联网兴趣点数据进行了储存;然后通过MapReduce机制改进并实现了适用于海量兴趣点数据的空间同位模式挖掘的Apriori算法和几个常用的空间分布特征值计算方法;最后依据开放地理信息系统协会的Web处理服务规范,设计并实现了一个互联网兴趣点分布式分析服务实验系统。该文所提出的改进后的算法在数据吞吐量和计算效率上有优越性,且计算效率比传统空间分析工具和传统Apriori算法有所提高。     

Urbanization between compactness and dispersion: designing a spatial model for measuring 2D binary settlement landscape configurations

Measuring spatial patterns is a crucial task in spatial sciences. Multiple indicators have been developed to measure patterns in a quantitative manner. However, most comparative studies rely on relative comparisons, limiting their explanatory power to specific case studies. Motivated by advancements in earth observation providing unprecedented resolutions of settlement patterns, this paper suggests a measurement technique for spatial patterns to overcome the limits of relative comparisons. We design a model spanning a feature space based on two metrics – largest patch index and number of patches. The feature space is defined as ‘dispersion index’ and covers the entire spectrum of possible two-dimensional binary (settlement) patterns. The model configuration allows for an unambiguous ranking of each possible pattern with respect to spatial dispersion. As spatial resolutions of input data as well as selected areas of interest influence measurement results, we test dependencies within the model. Beyond, common other spatial metrics are selected for testing whether they allow unambiguous rankings. For scenarios, we apply the model to artificially generated patterns representing all possible configurations as well as to real-world settlement classifications differing in growth dynamics and patterns.