Indian census cartography

The Indian Census Organization is internationally known for its cartographic literature and coverage. The first Census Atlas series was brought out during 1961 Census. In the 1971 period this programme was strengthened and in addition, materials drawn from updating of jurisdictions were published in diversified cartographic forms. A programme has been added in 1981 Census activities on regional mapping to interpret population data leading to cartographic evaluation in its regional frame. This paper tries to focus attention in these cartographic developments and research to all concerned.     

Mapping from space — cartographic applications of satellite image data

Digital as well as photographic satellite image data offer a high potential of topographic and thematic information. The paper discusses the application of such data for mapping purposes. For the compilation of conventionalTopographic Maps the requirements concerning the geometrical accuracy can easily be met for 1 : 50,000 or even 1 : 25,000. However, the interpretability of the features that are relevant for topography is often the critical factor. Only the Russian KWR-1000 data are suitable for mapping topographic features in 1 : 25,000. Main emphasis is laid on a new map type, theSatellite Image Map. The authors describe the satellite image mapping procedures developed at the Technical University of Berlin and applied in practice by FPK Consulting Engineers. Some related problems are discussed in details, eg mosaicking, merging of different types of data, and integration of graphical elements. An increase in cartographic applications of satellite remote sensing data is anticipated.     

Xenolith-derived mantle geotherms: whither the inflection?

Three possibilities exist for the geometry of the upper mantle geotherm determined from study of garnet lherzolite xenoliths from Cretaceous kimberlites of northern Lesotho, southern Africa: (1) the geotherm is inflected to a lower thermal gradient at greater depth (low-T inflection); (2) the geotherm is uninflected; and (3) the geotherm is inflected to a higher thermal gradient at greater depth (high-T inflection). In the past two years all three possibilities have been advocated. Finnerty and Boyd (1984, 1987) found that many independent thermometers yield similar P-T arrays, so that features of xenolith geotherms cannot be artifacts of the method of temperature estimation. Hence the current controversy centers on the barometers used for pressure estimation. Bertrand et al. (1986) calibrated a new aluminous-enstatite barometer using 50–100 kbar data of Yamada and Takahashi (1983), and presented a southern Africa geotherm displaying a low-T inflection. The high-P alumina solubility data are incompatible with lower-P data, however, with the result that the new barometer underestimates pressure: a diamond-bearing xenolith falls at least 5.7 kbar into the stability field of graphite. Thus, the Bertrand et al. (1986) barometer does not adequately test the reality of inflected geotherms. Carswell and Gibb (1987 a, b) modified the aluminous enstatite barometer of Nickel and Green (1985) to account for Jadeite molecule in orthopyroxenes containing relatively high concentrations of Na. When applied to xenoliths of northern Lesotho the apparent inflection is minimized but still evident. In this suite Na content of orthopyroxenes increases systematically with greater T or greater depth. Sodium correlates poorly with T (and depth) in a suite of xenoliths from Farm Louwrencia, Namibia, and application of the Nickel and Green (1985) barometer (with or without modification) destroys the correlation of T with P expected for a geotherm. The decorrelation of P from T in the Louwrencia suite is caused by errors in the Na correction. The minimization of the inflection in the northern Lesotho suite is caused by the correlation of Na with T (and depth) in that suite and does not result from an improved correction scheme for the aluminous enstatite barometer. Hence, the Carswell and Gibb (1987a, b) formulation of the barometer does not support the absence of an inflection in the northern Lesotho geotherm. Adams and Bishop (1986) recalibrated the olivine barometer (Finnerty and Boyd 1978) and presented a southern African P-T array that appears uninflected. Their barometer, however, underestimates pressure by 10–20 kbar: all xenoliths from the southern African diamond-bearing kimberlites plot well within the graphite stability field. This barometer is also too imprecise to judge whether an inflection is present or absent. Finnerty (1989), employing an empirical fit to data for Ca solubility in olivine and several different independent thermometers, presented northern Lesotho P-T arrays that satisfy the diamond-graphite constraint with minimal scatter and display high-T inflections. Because the inflection is evident with independent thermometers and independent barometers, it cannot be an artifact of the method of P-T estimation. The arguments contesting such an interpretation are flawed and so it is concluded that a high-T inflection is a fundamental property of the Cretaceous upper mantle geotherm beneath southern Africa.     

Apport de l'imagerie satellitaire radar pour l'exploration géologique en zones arides

The potential of radar imagery in geological exploration was investigated at a study site in Mauritania (Akjoujt region). Compared with optical images, the results obtained show how radar imagery can help not only in detecting surface geological structures such as dykes and veins, but also mapping subsurface structures beneath a shallow layer of sand (palaeochannels). The mapping potential was found to be much better at long wavelengths than at short ones (L-band, compared with C- and X-band). As for optical images, their contribution is much more limited in the mapping of surface geological structures, and inappropriate for detecting subsurface structures. We conclude that spatial remote sensing enables the improvement of existing geological maps and the optimization of cartographic surveying. To cite this article: N. Baghdadi et al., C. R. Geoscience 337 (2005).     

Integrating publicly available web mapping tools for cartographic visualization of community food insecurity: a prototype

Spatial profiling of community food security data can help the targeting of geographic areas and populations most vulnerable to food insecurity. While multiple poverty mapping systems support spatial profiling, they often lack capabilities to disseminate mapping results to a wide range of audiences and to spatially link qualitative data to quantitative analysis. To address these limitations, this study presents a web mapping framework which integrates a variety of publicly available software tools to enable spatial exploration of both quantitative and qualitative data. Specifically, our framework allows online choropleth mapping and thematic data exploration through a mixture of free mapping Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) and open source software tools for spatial data processing and desktop-like user interfaces. The study demonstrates this framework by developing a web prototype for informing food insecurity issues in Bogotá, Colombia. The prototype implementation reveals that the proposed framework facilitates the development of scalable and functionally-extensible mapping systems and the identification of community-specific food insecurity problems (e.g., food kitchens inaccessible from workplaces of low-income residents). This suggests that web-based cartographic visualization using publicly available software tools can be useful for spatial examination of community food insecurity as well as for cost-effective distribution of the resulting map information.     

The use of chi-square maps in the analysis of census data

This paper addresses itself to one of the problems inherent in any spatial analysis of census data, namely the variable size of the enumeration units. This variation renders some proportions unstable, due to the small numbers involved. Attempts to overcome this, using visual methods, can be unsatisfactory, whilst doing nothing to aid statistical analysis. Chi-square maps are suggested as a satisfactory alternative in both contexts, and data for Reading, Berkshire are displayed to illustrate this. These maps suggest that some inferences, based upon indicators derived from proportions, may be unsound.     

The geographic distribution of metals in urban soils: the case of Syracuse,NY

A paucity of literature currently exists pertaining to the high-resolution geographic distribution of metal contaminants across urban areas. Thousands of soil samples were collected across Syracuse, NY to secure empirical evidence about such geographic distributions. Metal measurements were made with XRF technology, with quality assessments based upon replicate samples as well as ICP technology summarized here. Both metal covariations and their spatial structure are described, followed by mapping of selected metal measurements based upon sample points, as well as census block group and census tract aggregates. A simple comparison is presented between certain of these empirical results and a selected non-urban landscape (a river floodplain). Finally, implications drawn from the empirical evidence presented include covariation assessments with selected census data that serve as surrogates for poverty.     

Population movement in Post-Colonial Fiji: Review and speculation

May 1987 is a month that will not be forgotten in the South Pacific. The first of two military coups d'etat led by Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka not only transformed the course of post-colonial political development in Fiji, but this event also had profound implications for international relations in the region. Co-incidentally, May 1987 was also the month when detailed results of Fiji's second national population census since Independence in 1970 became available. The 1986 census documents Fiji's population on the eve of a political revolution which has the potential to cause significant economic and social change. The demographic process most likely to be affected in the short-term by the coups is population movement, both within Fiji and to overseas destinations. This: paper examines developments in population movement between 1970 and 1986 with particular reference to an acceleration in levels of migration overseas by Indians and an exodus of Fijians from rural village communities for towns on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. Trends in internal and international migration are evaluated at a range of spatial scales — national, regional and local. Some speculation on the effect of political and economic changes since May 1987 on these population movements attempts to provide a contemporary perspective on demographic developments over the last 15 years.     

基于ArcGIS的土地利用现状地图缩编方法研究

采用陕西省凤县二调1∶1万土地利用数据库作为实验数据,将ArcGIS9.2的自动制图综合功能与人工处理相结合,制作1∶5万凤县土地利用现状图.文章提出的制作过程具有简单,成图速度快,且成图质量较高等优点.     

Mapping exposure to snow in a developing African context: implications for human and livestock vulnerability in Lesotho

Alpine cryospheric hazards are becoming increasingly prominent under current global/regional climate change scenarios and receiving wide scientific coverage from, in particular, northern hemisphere mountain regions associated with glaciers, permafrost, and extensive seasonal snow cover. However, there is a general paucity of knowledge and attention on cryospheric hazards associated with mountain environments only occasionally/rarely impacted by heavy seasonal snowfalls or severe frost events, particularly those in developing and southern hemisphere regions. Prolonged snow cover in the Lesotho Highlands sometimes carries the consequence of human and livestock deaths owing to isolation and exposure in this developing region. We use daily Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer snow cover images for the period 2003–2010, to establish the frequency, extent, and timing of snowfalls across Lesotho. In addition, a digital shape file containing the location, name, and district attributes of 2,016 villages across Lesotho was used to assist in the construction of a village exposure to snow index. A ranking system was applied to each village according to the seasonal duration of snow cover, and the accessibility and proximity to the nearest road. Snowfalls occur on average between 1 and 8 times per annum, with village exposure to snow (potential vulnerability) being generally low, particularly for the lowlands and Senqu River Valley. However, the study identifies that some high-altitude (>2,500 m) villages such as Thoteng, Letseng-la-Terae, and Mabalane are, on occasion, highly exposed to prolonged snow cover, and particularly so during the mid-snow season of July/August. We demonstrate the importance of applying spatiotemporal assessments on infrequent snow occurrences (which carry associated hazards) in developing mountain regions such as Lesotho, with implications to reduce livelihood risks through improved disaster preparedness and a well-informed, focused emergency response.     

Geography and postgenomics: how space and place are the new DNA

For many geographers, postgenomics is a relatively new perspective on biological causality. It is a non-dualistic way to conceptualize DNA, genes and environment. It also presents an opportunity for a broad critical engagement with biology through geography’s insights into socionature and the fallacies of spatial inference. In postgenomics, mapping of the spatial and temporal contexts and circumstances surrounding DNA, rather than DNA sequence alone, has become prioritized. Consequently, scientific and economic value in postgenomics accrues through the enclosure and mapping of the ‘omes’. These include the more familiar epigenome and microbiome, but also the interactome, the phenome, and the exposome among many others. The omes represent the cartographic translation of biological spatialities that modify the outcomes of DNA sequence from within as well as from outside of human bodies. In this article, we show how postgenomics leverages this omic ontologicalization of space and puts it to productive use. Drawing upon recent studies of the human microbiome, we illustrate how problematic geographies of difference arise through the way this omic mapping unfolds.     

Erratum to: Assessment of coastal communities’ vulnerability to floods using indicator-based approach: a case study of Greater Accra Metropolitan Area,Ghana

In this paper, the extent to which the potentially transit-dependent portion of the population is vulnerable to the effects of a hurricane is estimated. The vulnerability of an area is defined as a composite measure of the proportion of disadvantaged persons, distance to transit, and flooding potential of people within an area. Unlike past studies which have focused on the vulnerability of the population in relatively large geographic areas, this study estimates the vulnerability of the population in 30 m × 30 m areas as defined in the National Land Cover Database. Population estimates from the national census at block level are disaggregated to the 30 m × 30 m units using a modified dasymetric mapping method in ArcGIS. The modified mapping method assigns population to each small areal unit using weights estimated by regressing the area of each land use in a census block against the population in that block. The coefficients in the regression analysis are “weights” associating population with each land use, and are used to distribute the population in each census block to the small geographic units based on their land use. In a case study of New Orleans, the results show that some areas are not well served by the existing transit pickup locations, as evidenced by their high vulnerability scores. Reassignment of pickup point locations to cover higher vulnerability score areas was investigated using integer linear programming. The results show that the optimally located pickup points serve areas with a larger average vulnerability score than the current pickup points in the study area. The method appears to be helpful in identifying vulnerable areas that, subsequently, could receive improved hurricane evacuation service in the future.     

Application of remote sensing technique to mapping of the map series of karst geology in China and Southeast Asia

Based on the mapping program of the map series of karst geology in China and Southeast Asia, the paper summarizes the application of remote sensing technique and the process of acquiring information from remote sensing images. Generally, remote sensing technique serves as an effective method to recognize information about karst topography, rocky desertification and karst collapse. Interpretation of remote sensing images, in combination with field verification and cartographic generalization, provides basic data for updating the program database and compiling synthetic maps. In interpreting remote sensing images, automatic extraction can make it more efficient and visual interpretation can improve its accuracy.     

Combining Areal and Point Data in Geostatistical Interpolation: Applications to Soil Science and Medical Geography

A common issue in spatial interpolation is the combination of data measured over different spatial supports. For example, information available for mapping disease risk typically includes point data (e.g. patients’ and controls’ residence) and aggregated data (e.g. socio-demographic and economic attributes recorded at the census track level). Similarly, soil measurements at discrete locations in the field are often supplemented with choropleth maps (e.g. soil or geological maps) that model the spatial distribution of soil attributes as the juxtaposition of polygons (areas) with constant values. This paper presents a general formulation of kriging that allows the combination of both point and areal data through the use of area-to-area, area-to-point, and point-to-point covariances in the kriging system. The procedure is illustrated using two data sets: (1) geological map and heavy metal concentrations recorded in the topsoil of the Swiss Jura, and (2) incidence rates of late-stage breast cancer diagnosis per census tract and location of patient residences for three counties in Michigan. In the second case, the kriging system includes an error variance term derived according to the binomial distribution to account for varying degree of reliability of incidence rates depending on the total number of cases recorded in those tracts. Except under the binomial kriging framework, area-and-point (AAP) kriging ensures the coherence of the prediction so that the average of interpolated values within each mapping unit is equal to the original areal datum. The relationships between binomial kriging, Poisson kriging, and indicator kriging are discussed under different scenarios for the population size and spatial support. Sensitivity analysis demonstrates the smaller smoothing and greater prediction accuracy of the new procedure over ordinary and traditional residual kriging based on the assumption that the local mean is constant within each mapping unit.     

Compilation of hydrogeological map of China

Hydrogeological map is one of the important carriers of groundwater related information. It directly reflects the hydrogeological conditions and previous investigation and research results of a mapping area. The hydrogeological map of China is a map reflecting the characteristics of hydrogeology and groundwater dynamics on a national scale. On the basis of the hydrogeological map of China (1: 4 000 000) compiled in 1988, this map compilation attempted to update and enhance the existing map, with the latest survey results from the project of National Investigation and Evaluation of Groundwater Resources and Environmental Problems led by China Geological Survey. Task of the mapping program included redefining groundwater types, quantifying the classification standard of the groundwater and adding the pore-fissure water in laterite layer of hilly basin. The multilayer structures for porous, karst and porous-fractured groundwater and their water-rich grades are reflected on the map. Based on the comprehensive summary of the latest hydrogeological data of China, this research conducts an in-depth analysis of the regional distribution characteristics of groundwater in China, utilizes a digital mapping process and establishes a cartographic database for the purpose of further use. With the enrichment of the content and the continuous improvement of cognitive level, mapping content can be updated quickly, which has practical significance for the concept of surveying and mapping and scientific popularization.     

Mapping geoheritage for geotourism management,a case study of Aït Bou Oulli Valley in Central High-Atlas (Morocco)

Mapping can act as a preliminary tool for the protection of natural areas and for land-use management, as it uses an easily transmissible international language which cannot be misunderstood. Geoheritage mapping can provide great opportunities for the transfer of geosciences information to the large public and policy makers. Recently, the geotourism map appears as a basic tool for the protection and promotion of this geoheritage and as a means to activate and mediate the geotourism image of the region. Aït Bou Oulli Valley is located in Moroccan Central High-Atlas, precisely within the M’Goun geopark. It is characterized by a rich geodiversity with respect to other areas of Central High-Atlas Mountains. It harbors a wide-range of geological and geomorphological heritage, and an exceptional landscape of high Mountains. The valley attracts a number of tourists whose number is skyrocketing on a yearly basis, but their number remains limited due to the absence of promotion and mediation tools of its geoheritage and to the absence of the cartographic documentation. This study aims, hence to elaborate a new geotourism map of Aït Bou Oulli Valley using digital mapping tools and fieldwork. The map shows geosites and high mountain landscapes and offers an overview of the valley’s geoheritage. This map is supported by tourism-related infrastructure, which will provide useful information for tourists. It also highlights the valley geodiversity with a view to promoting its geotourism through the establishment of three new geo-hiking trails.     

地质约束条件下的地质体智能综合方法研究

地质体综合是地质图编制工作的重中之重,因其处理涉及内容多、 业务逻辑复杂、 重复工作量大,是影响编图工作推进的主要因素.为了能够实现地质体的高效综合,文章提出了一种以地质约束条件(专家知识)为核心、 以制图综合为空间图形合并手段的新型地质体智能综合方法,设计并实现了围绕地质专家知识(如地质年代、 地层名称等)规则映射开...     

Garnet lherzolite xenoliths in the kimberlites of northern Lesotho: revised P-T equilibration conditions and upper mantle Palaeogeotherm

Evidence is presented that the inflected palaeogeotherm for northern Lesotho, previously highlighted by Boyd (1973), Boyd and Nixon (1973, 1975), Finnerty and Boyd (1984, 1987), is essentially an artifact of the unsatisfactory, over-simplified barometer formulation (based on MacGregor 1974) employed. The absence of an inflection in the palaeogeotherm for Udachnaya, Siberia based on P-T estimates for garnet lherzolite xenoliths calculated with the same barometer, does not prove the reality of an inflected palaeogeotherm for northern Lesotho. Rather, it reflects, at least in part, chemical differences between the equivalent deformed, high-T xenoliths in these two areas — most importantly expressed in the respective contents of Jadeite relative to ureyite in the constituent orthopyroxenes. Accurate estimation of P-T equilibration conditions for garnet lherzolite xenoliths requires both complete and precise mineral analyses and adequate consideration of the influence of minor elements, such as Cr and Na, on the element exchange reaction thermometers and barometers employed. The barometer formulation of Nickel and Green (1985) is judged to be the best currently available. As no single thermometer is entirely satisfactory and dependable throughout the P-T range of interest, equilibration temperatures are currently best assessed as a mean value obtained from application of the most accurate formulations for both the two-pyroxene solvus thermometer (Bertrand and Mercier 1985) and Fe²⁺-Mg²⁺ exchange reactions between garnet-clinopyroxene (Powell 1985), garnet-orthopyroxene (Harley 1984a) and garnet-olivine (O'Neill and Wood 1979) mineral pairs. Such best P-T estimates for xenoliths in the kimberlites of northern Lesotho indicate a somewhat elevated, non-inflected, upper mantle palaeogeotherm, compatible with a 120–145 km thick thermally conductive lithosphere above a convecting asthenosphere. The common coarse textured, chemically depleted, garnet lherzolite xenoliths appear mostly to have originated from close to the base of the lithosphere whilst the contrasting deformed, higher T, more chemically fertile xenoliths have come from the underlying asthenosphere. There is evidence for slight variations in the heat flux within the mantle beneath northern Lesotho at the time of emplacement of the Thaba Putsoa and Mothae kimberlites, only some 16 km apart, and also possibly for a regional variation in the thickness of the lithosphere.     

Cattle development problems and programs in India: A regional analysis

India has the largest cattle production in the world. Generally, Indian cattle are considered to be of poor quality, and it is suggested that most of these animals are useful only for beef but for their religious significance to the Hindu majority. Such generalization at the national level ignores the regional qualities of several superior indigenous breeds. Further, India together with some international agencies has launched the most comprehensive cattle development programs in the world. Known as the Key Village Scheme and Intensive Cattle Development Projects, their main objective is the spatial diffusion of superior quality breeds throughout the country. This study is the first attempt towards mapping andevaluating the problems and success of these programs at the district level in India.Grateful acknowledgement is made to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for supporting the postfield work part of this study. The author also wishes to thank Dr. A. G. Phipps for helping in computer programming, Keith Bigelow for cartographic work, Keith Bell and Sue Ann Hipkin for data processing and mapping, and Mrs. Dorothy Young for the typing.     

对《中国古地理图集》制图设计的认识

《中国古地理图集》(下面简称《图集》)属於概略性古地理图,是一本八开本的综合性图集,由多种专业类型的全国性图件和地区性图件123幅及20万文字说明和英文摘要组成。《图集》从设计、编绘、制版、印刷历时数年,经地质人员、制图人员、制印人员、出版工作者等多方通力协作,现已正式出版发行。本文希望通过总结与探讨《图集》制图设计与编制工作中的某些有关问题,能有助于小比例尺大区域岩相古地理图的编制工作。