Numerical models for diagenesis and the Neogene Sr isotopic evolution of seawater from DSDP Site 590B

A numerical model for the diagenetic exchange of Sr between carbonates and their pore fluids during sedimentation and compaction has been developed. The model has been applied to data from DSDP Site 590B in order to assess the accuracy with which the Sr isotope record in the carbonate sediment reflects that of seawater. The most important process affecting the Sr in the solid carbonate is exchange with the pore fluid due to solution-reprecipitation, but the concentration or isotopic composition of Sr in the solid itself gives little or no information as to the magnitude of this exchange. The key to determining the rate of exchange is the pore fluid, where the variations of Sr²⁺ and⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr with depth are very sensitive indicators. The logical structure of applying the model to data from DSDP 590B is to find by successive iteration an ocean history (i.e., the initial⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and Sr concentration of each increment of carbonate deposited) and a rate of Sr exchange between pore water and solid carbonate such that the model matches the present Sr concentration and⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of both pore water and solid carbonate.Once all the data are matched, the model provides an estimate of the rate of Sr exchange due to solution-reprecipitation and the evolution of⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr in seawater over the past 20 million years. For DSDP 590B we find that solution-reprecipitation decreases rapidly with depth, from a near surface value of about 10% per million years to about 1% per million years below 200 m. This rate of exchange of Sr results in the carbonates of DSDP 590B preserving an accurate record of the Sr isotopic evolution of the ocean over the past 5 million years, but for ages greater than 5 million years the⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of the carbonate is systematically displaced from that of the seawater in which it was deposited. The maximum difference is of order 5 × 10⁻⁵.     

南海北部神狐海域天然气水合物成藏演化分析研究

南海北部陆坡具备天然气水合物成藏的基本地质条件,神狐海域天然气水合物是当前我国海洋天然气水合物勘探开发研究的重点靶区.然而,神狐海域水合物集中分布在水合物稳定带的底部薄层中,饱和度高,其水合物特征与典型的低甲烷通量控制的水合物分布有很大差异,对其成藏机理和控制因素尚不明确.本文构建了针对神狐水合物成藏过程的一维动力学模型,模型包括沉积压实作用、甲烷溶解度、以及水合物生成和沉积体渗透率,模拟计算的主控参量为海底沉积速率和水流通量,在孔隙水中甲烷浓度一定的情况下,水流速率决定了溶解甲烷的迁移速率和稳定带中甲烷的供给速率,并以此模型计算了神狐海域水合物聚集成藏的动力学过程.模型讨论了特定沉积速率和水流通量条件下水合物成藏与分布特征,并与实际观测数据进行比较研究.研究发现,基于当前沉积速率和水流通量条件模拟的水合物形成演化过程,与神狐海域实际水合物分布特征存在很大差异,但在假定系统中水合物饱和度初值达16~20%时,模拟的水合物饱和度分布特征与观测数据吻合,并因此推测在早期地质历史上,神狐海域存在更加丰富的甲烷水合物,当前的水合物分布特征是在对早期水合物继承基础上发展而成的,而且神狐海域水合物含量正逐渐减少.     

钻井液侵入海洋含水合物地层的一维数值模拟研究

本文以墨西哥湾水合物区域为背景,利用数值模拟方法研究了过平衡钻井条件下,当钻井液温度高于地层中水合物稳定温度时,水基钻井液侵入海洋含水合物地层的动态过程及其一般性规律.与侵入常规油气地层相比,耦合水合物分解和再形成是钻井液侵入海洋含水合物地层的主要特征.模拟结果表明,钻井液密度、温度和盐度都对侵入过程有影响.在一定条件下,钻井液密度越大,温度和含盐量越高,则钻井液侵入程度越深,热量传递越远,水合物分解程度越大.分解的水气在合适条件下又会重新形成水合物,影响了钻井液进一步侵入.而重新形成的水合物的饱和度甚至可能高于原位水合物饱和度,在井周形成一个"高饱水合物"环带.这一现象归因于钻井液侵入的驱替推挤、水合物分解的吸热以及地层传热的滞后等因素共同作用.在地层物性一定的条件下,高饱水合物环带的出现与否主要受钻井液温度和盐度控制.水合物分解以及高饱水合物环带的出现对井壁稳定和电阻率测井解释有很大影响.因此,为维护井壁稳定、确保测井准确和减少水合物储层伤害,就必须对钻井液密度、温度和滤失量进行严格控制,防止地层中的水合物大量分解.最好采用控制压力钻井(MPD)和深侧向测井方式,同时尽量选用低矿化度的含水合物动力学抑制剂的钻井液体系,采取低温快速循环方式.     

南海琼东南盆地天然气水合物稳定域分布特征及资源预测

琼东南盆地油气地质显示盆地内具有生物成因和热成因天然气的巨大生成能力和远景. 地震剖面显示盆地内发育有泥底辟和气烟囱、沟通泥底辟和气烟囱与海底的断裂及可能正在活动的天然气冷泉,这些特征非常有利于天然气水合物的发育. 通过天然气水合物热力学稳定域预测,确定了琼东南盆地天然气水合物的平面和剖面分布特征. 生物成因甲烷水合物分布于水深大于约600m的海底,稳定带最大厚度约314m;热成因天然气水合物分布于水深大于约450m的海区,稳定带最大厚度约410m. 盆地内天然气水合物远景总量约10×109m3,水合物天然气远景为1.6×1012m3.     

Numerical simulation of accumulation of gas hydrates during sedimentation and compaction of sediments under subaqueous conditions

The mutual influence of compaction of depositing sediments and formation of gas hydrates in a porous medium is examined. Within the framework of the general mathematical model developed in this study, these interrelated processes are described by a nonlinear system of eight partial differential equations and are analyzed using numerical simulation in terms of the model including compaction of depositing sediments, movement of pore fluids, and formation of gas hydrates from dissolved methane accumulated during sedimentation. On the basis of model examples calculated with the use of representative parameters of the system, it is shown that the hydrate formation rate depends on the sedimentation rate and thermal conditions. Gas hydrate formation is shown to influence the pore fluid velocity in the near-surface zone of sediments.     

南海北部神狐海域天然气水合物成藏模式研究

南海北部陆坡神狐海域是我国海洋天然气水合物勘探开发研究的重点靶区,独特的水合物成藏特征,难以利用当前观测到的沉积速率和流体流动条件对其成藏机理进行解释和量化说明,对其形成演化模式和控制因素尚不明确.本文构建了海洋天然气水合物形成演化过程的动力学模型,模型的主控参量为海底沉积速率和水流速率,以此计算了神狐海域天然气水合物聚集演化过程,并与饱和度的盐度测试值进行对比.最后,在研究神狐海域地质构造活动和水合物成藏动力学基础上建立了神狐天然气水合物形成演化模式.认为神狐海域当前的天然气水合物是在上新世末—更新世早期断裂体系水合物基础上继承演化而来的,神狐海域天然气水合物形成演化具有典型的二元模式.第一阶段水合物形成发生在距今1.5 Ma之前构造活动形成的断裂体系中,高达50 m/ka的孔隙水流动携带了大量的甲烷进入水合物稳定带,导致了水合物的快速生成,在4万年内形成了饱和度达20%的甲烷水合物;第二阶段发生在1.5 Ma以来,泥质粉砂沉积使沉积体渗透率骤减,0.7 m/ka的低速率水流使甲烷供给不足,在海底浅层新沉积体中无法生成水合物,仅在水合物稳定带底部有缓慢的水合物继承增长,并因此形成了神狐海域当前观测到的水合物产出特征,而且水合物资源量仍在减少.     

沉积物孔隙空间天然气水合物微观分布观测

在高分辨率工业型X射线层析扫描仪上（X-CT,X-Ray Computerized Tomography）,研制了适用于沉积物中水合物微观赋存状态研究的CT原位探测装置,可通过模拟天然气水合物生成/分解过程,直接观测水合物在沉积孔隙中的微观分布特征.对粒径为0.425~0.85 mm沉积物中水合物形成过程进行了CT观测研究,结果表明,沉积孔隙中水合物呈混合分布模式,但在水合物不同形成阶段,以某种分布模式为主导：在水合物形成初期,仅有极少量水合物悬浮在流体中,水合物主要以接触或胶结模式为主;在水合物形成中期（如饱和度为24.6%、35.0%时）,水合物倾向于在孔隙流体中以悬浮状形态生成;在水合物形成后期（如饱和度为51.4%之后）,悬浮状的水合物慢慢生长聚拢在一起,水合物又重新胶结沉积物颗粒.     

Hydrologic characteristics of lake‐ and stream‐side riparian wetted margins in the McMurdo Dry Valleys,Antarctica

Water is a limiting factor for life in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV), Antarctica. The active layer (seasonally thawed soil overlying permafrost) accommodates dynamic hydrological and biological processes for 10–16 weeks per year. Wetted margins (visually wetted areas with high moisture content) adjacent to lakes and streams are potential locations of great importance in the MDV because of the regular presence of liquid water, compared with the rest of the landscape where liquid water is rare. At 11 plots (four adjacent to lakes, seven adjacent to streams), soil particle size distribution, soil electrical conductivity, soil water content and isotopic signature, width of the wetted margin, and active layer thaw depth were characterised to determine how these gradients influence physicochemical properties that determine microbial habitat and biogeochemical cycling. Sediments were generally coarse‐grained in wetted margins adjacent to both lakes and streams. Wetted margins ranged from 1·04 to 11·01 m in average length and were found to be longer at lakeside sites than streamside. Average thaw depths ranged from 0·12 to 0·85 m, and were found to be deepest under lake margins. Lake margins also had much higher soil electrical conductivity, steeper topographic gradients, but more gradual soil moisture gradients than stream margins. Patterns of soil water δ¹⁸O and δD distribution indicate capillary action and evaporation from wetted margins; margin pore waters generally demonstrated isotopic enrichment with distance from the shore, indicating evaporation of soil water. Lake margin pore waters were significantly more negative in D_XS (D_XS = δD‐8δ¹⁸O) than streamside pore waters, indicating a longer history of evaporation there. Differences between lake and stream margins can be explained by the more consistent availability of water to lake margins than stream margins. Differences in margin characteristics between lakes and streams have important consequences for the microbial habitat of these margins and their functional role in biogeochemical cycling at these terrestrial–aquatic interfaces. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evidence for fluid flow in the Japan Trench forearc using isotope geochemistry (Cl, Sr, B): Results from ODP Site 1150

Abstract Interstitial pore waters from Ocean Drilling Program Site 1150, where ～1200 m of sub‐sea‐floor sediment from the upper Japan Trench forearc were recovered, were analyzed for element concentrations and Cl, Sr and B isotopes. Although chlorinity showed profound down‐hole freshening to values as low as ～310 mm (0.55 × seawater) in the deeper part of the claystone‐dominated succession, both Sr and B concentrations showed an overall increase. Sr reached concentrations of up to >250 µm (～3.00 × seawater), whereas B‐enrichment was even stronger (3920 µm; i.e. 9.30 × seawater). The strong variations in concentration correspond to fractionation reactions in the deep, tectonically deformed part of the forearc. The heavily fractured portion of Site 1150 (from ～700 m to the total depth of the hole) has two shear zones that very likely act as conduits that expel deep‐seated fluids to the sea floor. These fluids not only showed the strongest freshening of Cl, but were also characterized by low δ³⁷Cl measurements (down to ?1.1‰), the heaviest δ¹¹B measurements (～40–46‰) and the least radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr/ ⁸⁶Sr measurements. The profound isotope anomalies together with the excursions in element concentrations suggest that diagenetic processes operate at that depth. These include clay mineral diagenesis, alteration of tephra from the Japan and Izu Arcs, and possibly transformation of biogenic silica from abundant diatoms. Given the strong enrichment of some mobile elements (e.g. Sr, B, Li), enhanced fluid flow through permeable penetrative faults through the forearc (like the shear zones at Site 1150) could be an efficient mechanism for back‐flux of those elements from the deep forearc into the hydrosphere.     

Exploration drilling and reservoir model of the Platanares geothermal system, Honduras, Central America

Results of drilling, logging, and testing of three exploration core holes, combined with results of geologic and hydrogeochemical investigations, have been used to present a reservoir model of the Platanares geothermal system, Honduras. Geothermal fluids circulate at depths ≥ 1.5 km in a region of active tectonism devoid of Quaternary volcanism. Large, artesian water entries of 160 to 165°C geothermal fluid in two core holes at 625 to 644 m and 460 to 635 m depth have maximum flow rates of roughly 355 and 560 l/min, respectively, which are equivalent to power outputs of about 3.1 and 5.1 MW(thermal). Dilute, alkali-chloride reservoir fluids (TDS ≤ 1200 mg/kg) are produced from fractured Miocene andesite and Cretaceous to Eocene redbeds that are hydrothermally altered. Fracture permeabillity in producing horizons is locally greater than 1500 and bulk porosity is ≤ 6%. A simple, fracture-dominated, volume-impedance model assuming turbulent flow indicates that the calculated reservoir storage capacity of each flowing hole is approximately 9.7 × 10⁶ l/(kg cm⁻²), Tritium data indicate a mean residence time of 450 yr for water in the reservoir. Multiplying the natural fluid discharge rate by the mean residence time gives an estimated water volume of the Platanares system of ≥ 0.78 km³. Downward continuation of a 139°C/km “conductive” gradient at a depth of 400 m in a third core hole implies that the depth to a 225°C source reservoir (predicted from chemical geothermometers) is at least 1.5 km. Uranium-thorium disequilibrium ages on calcite veins at the surface and in the core holes indicate that the present Platanares hydrothermal system has been active for the last 0.25 m.y.     

Micro X‐Ray computed tomography imaging and ultrasonic velocity measurements in tetrahydrofuran‐hydrate‐bearing sediments

Naturally occurring gas hydrates contain significant amounts of natural gas that might be produced as an energy resource in the foreseeable future. Thus, it is necessary to understand the pore‐space characteristics of hydrate reservoirs, particularly the pore‐scale distribution of the hydrate and its interaction with the sediment. Four end‐member models for hydrate distribution in the pore space are pore filling, sediment‐frame component, envelope cementing, and contact cementing. The goal of this study is to compare the models with pore‐scale hydrate distributions obtained in laboratory‐formed hydrates. Our results verify hydrate pore‐scale distributions by direct, visual observations that were previously implied by indirect, elastic property measurements. Laboratory measurements were conducted using tetrahydrofuran as a guest molecule since tetrahydrofuran hydrate can be used as a proxy for naturally occurring hydrates. We performed micro X‐ray computed tomography to obtain information about the distribution of hydrate in the pore space of synthetic sediment (glass beads). We also made ultrasonic velocity measurements on the same samples. Micro X‐ray computed tomography images and ultrasonic velocity measurements both indicate that the tetrahydrofuran hydrate forms in the pore space with a part of the hydrate bridging the grains without touching the grain surfaces. These hydrate‐bearing sediments appear to follow a pore‐filling model with a portion of the hydrate becoming a load‐bearing part of the sediment frame.     

海洋天然气水合物发育顶界的模拟计算

天然气水合物顶界的确定对于其资源评价十分重要,但目前还没有很好的方法来确定.本文利用在甲烷-硫酸根（SMI）界面硫酸根与甲烷所消耗的量相等和水-天然气水合物二相体系甲烷溶解度模型,建立了水合物顶界埋深计算的数学模型,并考虑硫酸根氧化有机质和微生物原位甲烷生成的影响.计算的ODP1245和IODP1327站位水合物顶界埋深分别为53 mbsf和83 mbsf,与钻探获得的水合物顶界埋深相吻合.     

Ultrasonic attenuation of pure tetrahydrofuran hydrate

Improved estimates of the amount of subsurface gas hydrates are needed for natural resource, geohazard, and climate impact assessments. To evaluate gas hydrate saturation from seismic methods, the properties of pure gas hydrates need to be known. Whereas the properties of sediments, specifically sands, and hydrate‐bearing sediments are well studied, the properties of pure hydrates are largely unknown. Hence, we present laboratory ultrasonic P‐wave velocity and attenuation measurements on pure tetrahydrofuran hydrates as they form with reducing temperatures from 25°C to 1°C under atmospheric pressure conditions. Tetrahydrofuran hydrates, with structure II symmetry, are considered as proxies for the structure I methane hydrates because both have similar effects on elastic properties of hydrate‐bearing sediments. We find that although velocity increased, the waveform frequency content and amplitude decreased after the hydrate formation reaction was complete, indicating an increase in P‐wave attenuation after hydrate formation. When the tetrahydrofuran hydrate was cooled below the freezing point of water, velocity and quality factor increased. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance results indicate the presence of water in the “pure hydrate” samples above the water freezing point, but none below. The presence of liquid water between hydrate grains most likely causes heightened attenuation in tetrahydrofuran hydrates above the freezing point of water. In naturally occurring hydrates, a similarly high attenuation might relate to the presence of water.     

The effects of cooling rate on texture and pyroxene chemistry in DSDP Leg 34 basalt: A microprobe study

A 15.6-m cooling unit from DSDP Leg 34 is investigated to determine the effects of the rate of solidification of a liquid on the resulting textures and mineralogy. A detailed sampling from the top and bottom margins of the cooling unit inward to the center has revealed systematic textural and mineralogical variations that are the result of different cooling rates. Textures change from spherulitic-intersertal in the chilled margins through intergranular to subophitic/ophitic in the interior of the flow. Plagioclase width increases and the length/width ratio decreases with distance from the flow margins (and hence with decreasing cooling rate). Titanium and Al contents are higher in pyroxenes from the chilled margins than in those from the interior regions although there is no systematic change in major element concentrations. Thus, as has been shown by experiments in lunar rock systems [4,33], Ti and Al contents in pyroxene increase with increasing cooling rate. Cooling rates calculated from conductive heat flow equations range from >100°C/hr in the margins of the cooling unit to <0.1°C/hr in the interior (>3 m from the margin). The variations in minor element content of pyroxene due to cooling rate must be taken into account when one attempts to relate coarse-grained gabbros and volcanic rocks to a common parent by comparing their pyroxene compositions.     

青藏高原冻土带天然气水合物的形成条件与分布预测

冻土带是天然气水合物发育的两个重要地质环境之一.青藏高原平均海拔在4000m以上,多年冻土面积约1.4×106km2.本文根据青藏高原冻土层厚度和地温梯度特征,运用天然气水合物的热力学稳定域预测方法,确定中低纬度高海拔区冻土带天然气水合物的产出特征.青藏高原多年冻土带热成因天然气水合物形成的热力学相平衡反映,水合物顶界埋深约27~560m,底界埋深约77~2070m.初步计算表明,青藏高原冻土带水合物天然气资源约1.2×1011~2.4×1014m3.在冻土层越厚、冻土层及冻土层之下沉积层的地温梯度越小的地区,最有利于天然气水合物的发育.气温的季节性变化对天然气水合物影响不大.在全球气温快速上升的背景下,青藏高原天然气水合物将处于失稳状态,天然气水合物顶界下降、底界上升,与冻土带的退化相似,分布区逐渐缩小,最终将完全消失.     

冷泉形成的数值模拟研究

海底冷泉形成的一种可能机制是海平面下降引起天然气水合物的分解.本文基于对冷泉渗漏特征的分析,建立了二维轴对称模型,利用有限元方法定量分析了南海区域海平面下降对冷泉形成的影响.结果表明,末次冰盛期(26.5~19.0ka BP)海平面下降引起的冷泉活动可以持续到现在,但是从水合物停止分解至今,超孔隙压力的极值在持续减小,而流体向海底的渗漏达西速度先快速减小、然后缓慢减小.同时发现,流体向海底的渗漏达西速度与管状通道的渗透率、通道周围介质的渗透率以及通道的半径等有关,估计目前的冷泉活动还可以持续10000年以上.海平面下降引起的天然气水合物分解,可能是影响全球气候变化的一个重要因素.     

琼东南盆地天然气水合物及其成藏模式的海洋可控源电磁研究

南海琼东南盆地是天然气水合物重要远景区之一.由于盆地大部分地区海底地形平缓、地层近于水平,增加了利用地震反射剖面识别似海底反射（BSR,bottom simulating reflector）的难度,从而影响了对水合物的评价.为了进一步开展琼东南盆地水合物调查研究,本文在研究海域进行了海洋可控源电磁探测试验,将自主研发的10台接收机以500 m的间距,投放至水深约为1360 m的海底,完成了一条4.5 km剖面的电磁数据采集.通过对采集的数据进行处理与二维（2D）反演,获得了研究剖面海底的电阻率断面图.反演结果显示,研究区海底60~330 mbsf（meter bottom of seafloor）的地层中,存在多个横向不连续分布的高阻异常体,电阻率介于2~10 Ωm之间;在海底330 mbsf之下,横向上发育了电阻率为2~4 Ωm的3个高阻体.根据研究区热力学条件,本文估算了生物成因气与热成因天然气的水合物稳定带（GHSZ,gas hydrate stability zone）厚度,结合高阻体的分布特征推断了地震剖面上BSR的位置.在此基础上,对反演的电阻率断面进行解释,推断了研究区水合物的分布及游离气运移通道.研究表明,勘探区具有形成天然气水合物矿藏的地质与地球物理条件,其成藏模式可能属于"断层、裂隙输导的下生上储型",水合物的气源为生物成因气.     

南海北部陆坡水合物分解引起海底不稳定性的定量分析

分析了天然气水合物分解引起海底斜坡不稳定性的原因,探讨了水合物分解引起沉积物层孔隙压力变化规律.以南海北部神狐海域水合物样品钻获区为研究对象,应用极限平衡法探讨了海底无限斜坡的稳定性问题,计算了设定的不同滑动面的安全系数,建立了目标不稳定区相关参数条件下的水合物分解与海底斜坡不稳定的模式图,模拟计算了不同程度的水合物分解对海底斜坡失稳的影响作用.结果表明：在假设条件下,南海神狐海域当水深为1200 m,沉积物层厚度为200 m,对于20°的较大坡角,沉积物层中5%水合物分解将引起海底斜坡失稳;斜坡坡角为5°时,沉积物层中15%水合物分解后,将会引起海底斜坡失稳;当斜坡坡角为3°或更小时,沉积物层中25%水合物分解后,将会引起海底斜坡失稳.     

海洋天然气水合物可控源电磁法的响应特征:一维正演模拟

We discuss the feasibility of using controlled-source electromagnetic （CSEM） in the frequency domain for prospecting marine gas hydrates. Based on the Ocean Drilling Program （ODP） Leg 164 log data, we have established several 1-D resistivity models which have different gas hydrate concentrations. Meanwhile, we analyzed the electromagnetic response of marine gas hydrates in the frequency domain based on these models. We also studied the relationship between electrical field magnitude or phase and parameters such as receiver-transmitter distance and frequency. Our numerical modeling results provide us with a quantitative reference for exploration and resource evaluation of marine gas hydrates.     

Evolution of oceanic gabbros from DSDP Leg 82: influence of the fluid phase on metamorphic crystallizations

Gabbro breccias were recovered from an anomalously shallow level of the ocean crust during DSDP Leg 82. The rocks display evidence of metamorphic crystallization related either to localized deformation or to hydrothermal circulation of a seawater-derived fluid under static conditions. Secondary phases consist of plagioclase, amphibole and minor clinopyroxene, ilmenite, sphene and chlorite. Petrological study indicates that deformation took place at high temperature, under anhydrous conditions, and was followed by hydrothermal circulation. The compositions of secondary minerals (i.e. strong zonations, presence of chlorine in amphiboles, varying compositions of secondary plagioclase) indicate that reactions of the gabbros with the fluids occurred at a low water/rock ratio. Relations between Cl, Na and K in amphiboles suggest penetration of at least two distinct fluids of different compositions. Metamorphic crystallization stopped when greenschist facies conditions were reached( 350°C), probably because hydrothermal circulation faded out.