Hydraulic relationships between buried valley sediments of the glacial drift and adjacent bedrock formations in northeastern Ohio,USA

Buried valleys are ancient river or stream valleys that predate the recent glaciation and since have been filled with glacial till and/or outwash. Outwash deposits are known to store and transmit large amounts of groundwater. In addition to their intrinsic hydraulic properties, their productivity depends on their hydraulic relationships with the adjacent bedrock formations. These relationships are examined using a steady-state three-dimensional groundwater flow model through a section of a buried valley in northeastern Ohio, USA. The flow domain was divided into five hydrostratigraphic units: low-conductivity (K) till, high-K outwash, and three bedrock units (Pottsville Formation, Cuyahoga Group and Berea Sandstone). The model input was prepared using the data from well logs and drilling reports of residential water wells. The model was calibrated using observed heads with mean residual head error of 0.3 m. The calibrated model was used to quantify flux between the buried valley and bedrock formations. Mass balance was calculated to within an error of 2–3 %. Mass balance of the buried valley layer indicates that it receives 1.6 Mm³/year (≈40 % of the total inflow) from the adjacent bedrock aquifers: Pottsville Formation contributes 0.96 Mm³/year (60 %) while the Berea Sandstone 0.64 Mm³/year (40 %).     

Detecting transmissive bedrock fracture zones under cover of glacial formations using residential water-well production data

Tracing fractures under glacial drift commonly involves costly and often unfeasible (in populated areas) geophysical methods or outcrop surveys, often far from the area of interest. A hypothesis is tested, that the specific capacity data for wells penetrating through glacial drift into a bedrock aquifer display two statistical populations: assuming uniform well construction, the wells with high specific capacity penetrate transmissive fracture zones, while those with low specific capacity encounter non-fractured rock characterized by primary porosity. The hypothesis was tested on 617 wells drilled into the Pennsylvanian Sharon Sandstone, Geauga County, Ohio (USA). Hydraulic conductivity, calculated using the Cooper and Jacob (1946) approximation to Theis’ non-equilibrium radial flow equation, followed quasi-log-normal distribution (geometric mean 9.88?×?10^?6 m/s). The lower values presumably correspond to primary porosity, and higher values correspond to bedrock fracture zones. The higher hydraulic conductivity followed two distinct orientations (N34°E, N44°W), corresponding with the regional fracture pattern of the Allegheny Plateau. A variogram showed that the wells within a kilometer of each other correlate and that wells penetrating the thicker glacial blanket have lower hydraulic conductivity and larger drawdown. Cooper and Jacob (1946) A generalized graphical method for evaluating formation constants and summarizing well-field history, Am. Geoph. Union Trans. 27/4:526–534.     

Interactions of diffuse and focused allogenic recharge in an eogenetic karst aquifer (Florida, USA)

The karstic upper Floridan aquifer in north-central Florida (USA) is recharged by both diffuse and allogenic recharge. To understand how recharged water moves within the aquifer, water levels and specific conductivities were monitored and slug tests were conducted in wells installed in the aquifer surrounding the Santa Fe River Sink and Rise. Results indicate that diffuse recharge does not mix rapidly within the aquifer but instead flows horizontally. Stratification may be aided by the high matrix porosity of the eogenetic karst aquifer. Purging wells for sample collection perturbed conductivity for several days, reflecting mixing of the stratified water and rendering collection of representative samples difficult. Interpretive numerical simulations suggest that diffuse recharge impacts the intrusion of allogenic water from the conduit by increasing hydraulic head in the surrounding aquifer and thereby reducing influx to the aquifer from the conduit. In turn, the increase of head within the conduits affects flow paths of diffuse recharge by moving newly recharged water vertically as the water table rises and falls. This movement may result in a broad vertical zone of dissolution at the water table above the conduit system, with thinner and more focused water-table dissolution at greater distance from the conduit.     

Vertical migration of municipal wastewater in deep injection well systems,South Florida,USA

Deep well injection is widely used in South Florida, USA for wastewater disposal largely because of the presence of an injection zone (“boulder zone” of Floridan Aquifer System) that is capable of accepting very large quantities of fluids, in some wells over 75,000 m³/day. The greatest potential risk to public health associated with deep injection wells in South Florida is vertical migration of wastewater, containing pathogenic microorganisms and pollutants, into brackish-water aquifer zones that are being used for alternative water-supply projects such as aquifer storage and recovery. Upwards migration of municipal wastewater has occurred in a minority of South Florida injection systems. The results of solute-transport modeling using the SEAWAT program indicate that the measured vertical hydraulic conductivities of the rock matrix would allow for only minimal vertical migration. Fracturing at some sites increased the equivalent average vertical hydraulic conductivity of confining zone strata by approximately four orders of magnitude and allowed for vertical migration rates of up 80 m/year. Even where vertical migration was rapid, the documented transit times are likely long enough for the inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms.     

Relative importance and chemical effects of diffuse and focused recharge in an eogenetic karst aquifer: an example from the unconfined upper Floridan aquifer, USA

Karst aquifer studies often focus on allogenic water inputs and large conduit flow. However, diffuse recharge can be significant, particularly in unconfined eogenetic karst aquifers that retain high matrix permeability. This study examines an unconfined region of the upper Floridan aquifer (USA) that hosts a sinking stream, its resurgence, and a large conduit system. Daily diffuse recharge was approximated using a water-budget method and ranged from 17% of precipitation during a low precipitation year to >53% during the highest precipitation year, illustrating the highly variable nature of diffuse recharge in this region. The total allogenic input via the sinking stream over the 5 years of the study was significantly larger than the volume of diffuse recharge. However, only about 2% of the allogenic recharge flows from the conduit into the surrounding aquifer. That flow is restricted to storm events when hydraulic heads in the conduits exceed those in the surrounding aquifer. The estimated volume of dissolution is similar for allogenic recharge and diffuse recharge to the unconfined region surrounding the conduits, but dissolution from the diffuse recharge is distributed over a larger area than dissolution from allogenic recharge. These results exemplify how recharge type impacts flow and water–rock interactions in eogenetic karst aquifers.     

Application of MODFLOW for simulating groundwater flow in the Trifilia karst aquifer, Greece

Karst aquifers can have a complex flow as a result of the formation of large conduits from dissolution features. As a result, a three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model (equivalent porous media) may not apply as the dual porosity nature of karst features and the effects of turbulent flow cannot be directly simulated. Statistical analysis of karst hydrographs of the Trifilia aquifer in Greece showed the existence of a slightly karstified mass with high primary porosity that regulates the flow. An equivalent porous media model was developed to simulate the Trifilia karst aquifer using MODFLOW. Steady state and transient state calibration gave encouraging results for the equivalent porous media approach, which does not consider pipe flow or turbulence. Detailed hydrogeological research conducted in the area helped define the aquifer hydraulic conductivity zones and extent; and flux to/from the aquifer. Only hydraulic conductivity and specific yield were adjusted during calibration, as the flux to/from the system was considered known and applied as boundary conditions. Small mean absolute and RMS piezometric head error of the model under both steady and transient state conditions were achieved.     

Ambient well-bore mixing, aquifer cross-contamination, pumping stress, and water quality from long-screened wells: What is sampled and what is not?

Water quality tests were performed on two long-screened alluvial aquifer wells (15–30 m of screen) that had been completed in a heterogeneous aquifer that exhibits extreme temporal water quality variability. When stressed, the total dissolved solids (TDS) in one well decreased from 10,600 to 3,500 mg/L and in another well the TDS increased from 136 to 2,255 mg/L. Nested short-screened monitoring wells were constructed in chemically distinct horizons affecting each well. Water level measurements and solute and isotopic samples were obtained from the production wells and the monitoring wells during a water quality test. Results of a time drawdown tests demonstrate transmissivity differences between horizons. Ambient water quality in the production wells and aquifer cross-contamination are controlled by well-bore mixing due to head differences of as little as 0.01 m between chemically distinct horizons which are linked by the production well screen. During non-stress periods, the ambient well-bore chemistry is controlled by the horizon with the greatest hydraulic head, whereas during stressed conditions, horizon transmissivity controls the well-bore chemistry. In one well, aquifer cross-contamination, driven by an ambient head differential of 1.2 m, persisted until about 1,600 well-bore volumes were purged.     

Characterization of fracture connectivity in a siliciclastic bedrock aquifer near a public supply well (Wisconsin, USA)

In order to protect public supply wells from a wide range of contaminants, it is imperative to understand physical flow and transport mechanisms in the aquifer system. Although flow through fractures has typically been associated with either crystalline or carbonate rocks, there is growing evidence that it can be an important component of flow in relatively permeable sandstone formations. The objective of this work is to determine the role that fractures serve in the transport of near-surface contaminants such as wastewater from leaking sewers, to public supply wells in a deep bedrock aquifer. A part of the Cambrian aquifer system in Madison, Wisconsin (USA), was studied using a combination of geophysical, geochemical, and hydraulic testing in a borehole adjacent to a public supply well. Data suggest that bedrock fractures are important transport pathways from the surface to the deep aquifer. These fractured intervals have transmissivity values several orders of magnitude higher than non-fractured intervals. With respect to rapid transport of contaminants, high transmissivity values of individual fractures make them the most likely preferential flow pathways. Results suggest that in a siliciclastic aquifer near a public supply well, fractures may have an important role in the transport of sewer-derived wastewater contaminants.     

Field evidence of hydraulic connections between bedrock aquifers and overlying granular aquifers: examples from the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield

Field evidence of hydraulic connections between a bedrock aquifer and an overlying granular aquifer in the Canadian Shield (Grenville Province) is presented. This issue is rarely considered and investigated despite its important hydraulic and chemical consequences and its widespread occurrence worldwide. The methodology employed is based on complementary field tests conducted at specific experimental sites instrumented both in the rock and in the overlying deposits. One of the bedrock sites revealed a natural hydraulic connection with the overlying granular aquifer caused by the weathered surface of the uppermost bedrock. Another site revealed an artificial hydraulic connection between the bedrock and the granular aquifer created by an improperly sealed casing. A regional study showed that hydraulic connections yield an erroneous interpretation of the true hydraulic properties of the tested aquifer. The detection of hydraulic connections is therefore essential to properly define well-capture areas and contamination conditions. It is recommended to practitioners that pumping tests be performed as well as hydrochemical comparisons of each existing aquifer unit. Falling-head permeability tests are also helpful in verifying the quality of the seal at the bedrock–casing contact. More effective procedural controls and better well-construction practices are necessary to reduce the risks of cross-contamination induced by defective seals.     

伊拉克中部上白垩统Khasib组岩溶储层演化及异常高渗层成因

针对伊拉克艾哈代布(Ahdeb)油田Khasib组早期的注水突破难题, 本文以地球化学资料及取心薄片分析为基础, 结合区域沉积-构造演化背景, 对储层演化及异常高渗层的成因进行了研究, 并将储层演化划分为3个阶段: 沉积同生期、低沉降速率浅-中埋藏期和快速沉降深埋藏期。沉积同生期具两层高孔段: 即受同生岩溶改造形成的以砂屑粒间孔为主的Kh2-2-1砂屑颗粒灰岩和以藻屑铸模孔为主的Kh2-3-2藻屑泥粒灰岩。在此基础上, 浅-中埋藏期产生以走滑断裂为流体的运移通道, 以深部源岩降解形成的有机酸为溶蚀介质, 以同生期后形成的高孔层段为溶蚀的载体, 以非组构选择溶蚀作用为特征的埋藏有机酸岩溶, 它与同生期岩溶作用在时间上具有连续性, 形成的孔隙分布在空间上具有继承性。晚期地层快速沉降深埋藏期, 发生大规模烃类充注成藏, 阻止孔隙内水岩反应, 减弱储层内压实胶结破坏性成岩作用, 最终使得这两段具异常高渗透率特征。Kh2-2-1砂屑颗粒灰岩段以砂屑粒间孔、粒间溶孔、针状溶洞为主要孔隙类型, 以孔隙缩小型为主要喉道类型, 孔喉连通性好, 岩相区域分布稳定, 是造成早期注水突破的层段。总体而言, 本区异常高渗层的成因主要是: 优质储层的沉积基础及同生岩溶改造, 长期浅-中埋藏期有机酸溶蚀对储层的叠加和改造优化, 以及快速深埋藏期与烃类充注极好的耦合关系使其得以保存。     

Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) of a coastal carbonate aquifer (Port-Miou, SE France)

As part of a larger regional research program “KarstEAU”, the authors have applied electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) techniques to characterize heterogeneities in the Port-Miou coastal karst aquifer (Cassis, SE France). Field surveys were carried out on intensely fractured and karstified Urgonian carbonates. Extensive research has characterized macro- and micro-scale geology of the Port-Miou area and particularly underground water-filled conduits and fault/fracture and karst systems within a former quarry. The authors applied 2D ERT along two surface profiles of length 420 and 595 m to test capability for delineating subsurface conduits and possibly relationship between conduit and fault/fracture/karst orientation; and 3D ERT with a dense 120 electrode array at 1 m spacing (11 × 10 m) was applied over an area of the quarry that had been profiled using 3D georadar and which has had intensive nearby structural geological interpretation. The 2D profiling imaged several underground conduits at depths to >50 m below ground surface and below sea level, including possibly the main Port Miou submarine spring and smaller springs. The 2D profiling within the quarry provided a better understanding of the connectivity between major fractures and faults on the quarry walls and secondary springs along the coast supporting flow of the secondary springs along interpreted fracture orientations. In addition, 2D inversion-derived conductivity models indicate that high resistivity zones above sea-level are associated with non-saturated zones and low resistivity anomalies in the non-saturated zone are associated with residual clays in paleokarsts. A partitioned lower resistivity zone below sea-level can be associated with a higher porosity/permeability zone with fractures and karstic features. Inversion models of the dense 3D ERT data indicate a higher resistivity volume within the larger surveyed block. The survey characterized the non-saturated zone and the ERT resistivities are correlated with karst features interpreted by 3D georadar and visible in the inferior wall of the quarry.     

Characteristic of water chemistry and hydrodynamics of deep karst and its influence on deep coal mining

The mining depth of main coal mines could reach around 600 m in eastern North China, and extends to the dept with speed of around 12 m/a. As the basement of eastern North China-type coal mine, the Ordovician karst aquifer is the main water source that influences the carboniferous coal seam mining. As the deep karst water has large buried depth and high water pressure (8–12 MPa), with10–30 m space between high pressure aquifer and coal seam, the geological area of deep coal occurrence is often forbidden for mining. Environmental damage, to a greater or lesser degree, is caused by coal mining. On the basis of analyzing the hydrogeological conditions of mining areas, this paper introduces the hydrogeological survey work of ultra-high confined karst water deep in the coal seam floor within researched region for preventing and controlling water disaster of the mine. After researching into the hydrogeological investigation data in the researched region, we explored the hydrodynamic and water chemical characteristics of deep karst water by using pumping test, dynamic observation, and dewatering test. Finally, this study suggests that the hydraulic pressure of deep mining could be mined, on the circumstances that reasonable and effective of water prevention measures are taken based on a detailed survey on water abundance of deep karst.     

Characterization of the shallow groundwater system in an alpine watershed: Handcart Gulch,Colorado, USA

Water-table elevation measurements and aquifer parameter estimates are rare in alpine settings because few wells exist in these environments. Alpine groundwater systems may be a primary source of recharge to regional groundwater flow systems. Handcart Gulch is an alpine watershed in Colorado, USA comprised of highly fractured Proterozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks with wells completed to various depths. Primary study objectives include determining hydrologic properties of shallow bedrock and surficial materials, developing a watershed water budget, and testing the consistency of measured hydrologic properties and water budget by constructing a simple model incorporating groundwater and surface water for water year 2005. Water enters the study area as precipitation and exits as discharge in the trunk stream or potential recharge for the deeper aquifer. Surficial infiltration rates ranged from 0.1–6.2×10^?5 m/s. Discharge was estimated at 1.28×10^?3 km³. Numerical modeling analysis of single-well aquifer tests predicted lower specific storage in crystalline bedrock than in ferricrete and colluvial material (6.7×10^?5–2.0×10^?3 l/m). Hydraulic conductivity in crystalline bedrock was significantly lower than in colluvial and alluvial material (4.3×10^?9–2.0×10^?4 m/s). Water budget results suggest that during normal precipitation and temperatures water is available to recharge the deeper groundwater flow system.     

Delineation of capture zones for municipal wells in fractured dolomite, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, USA

A wellhead protection study for the city of Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, USA, demonstrates the necessity of combining detailed hydrostratigraphic analysis with groundwater modeling to delineate zones of contribution for municipal wells in a fractured dolomite aquifer. A numerical model (MODFLOW) was combined with a particle tracking code (MODPATH) to simulate the regional groundwater system and to delineate capture zones for municipal wells. The hydrostratigraphic model included vertical and horizontal fractures and high-permeability zones. Correlating stratigraphic interpretations with field data such as geophysical logs, packer tests, and fracture mapping resulted in the construction of a numerical model with five high-permeability zones related to bedding planes or facies changes. These zones serve as major conduits for horizontal groundwater flow. Dipping fracture zones were simulated as thin high-permeability layers. The locations of exposed bedrock and surficial karst features were used to identify areas of enhanced recharge. Model results show the vulnerability of the municipal wells to pollution. Capture zones for the wells extend several kilometers north and south from the city. Travel times from recharge areas to all wells were generally less than one year. The high seasonal variability of recharge in the study area made the use of a transient model necessary. Electronic Publication     

塔中地区热化学硫酸盐还原作用对深埋白云岩储层的改造

塔里木盆地塔中地区深埋碳酸盐岩储层显示出极强的非均质性。如灰岩地层孔隙度极低,而含酸性气藏的白云岩储层最大孔隙度高达27%。然而,造成这些现象的原因仍然不清楚。通过岩芯、薄片、扫描电镜观察,结合流体包裹体均一温度、盐度分析,方解石、白云石的碳氧同位素测定,试图解决这一问题。前人研究认为,塔中地区碳酸盐岩优质储层分布主要受控于原始沉积条件（如高能的礁滩相）和表生溶蚀,热液活动和断裂活动也起到重要作用。然而,多期流体活动和成岩作用导致大量同生期和表生期形成的溶蚀孔洞被破坏。在某些井区（如ZG9井和TZ75井）,埋藏溶蚀作用可能对优质储层形成起到重要作用。在寒武系和奥陶系岩芯中发现了大量硬石膏、重晶石、黄铁矿、沥青、方解石等,方解石交代硫酸盐,方解石具有较高的均一温度及较低的碳同位素值说明其形成与热化学硫酸盐还原作用（TSR）有关。在发生TSR的白云岩井段,储层物性较好,说明TSR可能对深埋储层的改善具有促进作用。这些认识有助于指导深层寒武系碳酸盐岩储层的进一步勘探。     

溶蚀作用下古岩溶盆地系统中介质场演化模拟

为了研究古岩溶盆地在溶蚀作用下碳酸盐岩油气储层介质场的演化规律,基于地下水渗流理论和碳酸盐溶蚀动力理论,用数值模型模拟了均质盆地和非均质盆地2种岩溶盆地含水系统发育过程。岩溶盆地含水系统演化过程中总伴随着裂隙差异溶蚀,不管均质盆地还是非均质盆地,都越来越非均质化,强溶蚀带集中在潜水位及优势裂隙附近,在侵蚀基准面和构造裂隙及层理等大裂隙处会形成高孔隙率、渗透率的良好储层。受介质场非均质化反作用,岩溶高地区潜水位随系统演化不断下降,潜水面处的强烈溶蚀随水位不断下切而使高地区改造成竖直裂隙发育的厚储层;坡地区水平径流活跃,易于形成水平裂隙发育的储层;平原区水位相对稳定,溶蚀作用主要发生大裂隙和侵蚀基准面处,但在大裂隙网内经溶蚀可形成局部高孔隙率储层。对比两子模型发现,在岩溶盆地含水系统中,主导渗流场都要经历由局部流场向二级流场、二级流场向全局流场的转变,前者发生在坡地区内部,后者发生在坡地区与平原区之间;流畅的渗流场转换更有利于介质场发育,受大裂隙网导水作用,非均质盆地比均质盆地更快捷、更顺利地实现主导流场升级,溶蚀作用更强烈,3 ka后非均质盆地比均质盆地的孔隙率增幅大34%。     

Contrasting definitions for the term ‘karst aquifer’

It is generally considered that karst aquifers have distinctly different properties from other bedrock aquifers. A search of the literature found five definitions that have been proposed to differentiate karst aquifers from non-karstic aquifers. The five definitions are based upon the presence of solution channel networks, hydraulic conductivities >10^?6 m/s, karst landscapes, channels with turbulent flow, and caves. The percentage of unconfined carbonate aquifers that would classify as ‘karst’ ranges from <1 to >50%.     

Modeling of transient groundwater flow,pollutant transport,and biodegradation in an aquifer with large hydraulic head variations

Industrially sourced dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) contaminated an alluvial aquifer in France decades ago. The location(s) and nature of the pollution source zone(s) were unknown, and the dissolved concentrations of volatile organic compounds in the monitoring wells varied greatly with time. The aquifer was in hydraulic equilibrium with an artificial canal whose water level was highly variable (up to 5 m). These variations propagated into the aquifer, causing changes in the groundwater flow direction; a transient numerical model of flow and solute transport showed that they correlate with the concentration variations because the changes in the flow direction resulted in the contaminant plume shifting. The transient hydrogeological numerical model was built, taking into account solvent biodegradation with first-order chain, since biodegradation has a significant influence on the pollutant concentration evolution. The model parameterization confirms the position of the source zones among the potential troughs in the bedrock where DNAPLs could have accumulated. The groundwater model was successfully calibrated to reproduce the observed concentration variations over several years and allowed a rapid validation of the hypotheses on the functioning of the polluted system.     

四川南江地区灯影组白云岩优质储层的形成与演化

南江地区震旦系灯影组白云岩优质储层主要为潮坪或粒屑滩环境成因的藻白云岩、粒屑白云岩和重结晶成因的粉-细晶白云岩,现存储集空间都是与溶解作用和重结晶作用相关的晶间（溶）孔、粒间溶孔、特大溶孔、缝合线溶孔和残余岩溶孔洞等。通过对原生和后生控制因素研究表明,灯影组优质储层是经过5个演化阶段后的最终产物,主控因素为表生期大气淡水岩溶作用及深埋期埋藏溶蚀作用。原始的沉积微相和岩石类型控制着岩溶作用的强度,埋藏溶蚀作用主要是对岩溶孔洞进行溶蚀扩大或充填破坏。     

Hydraulic conductivity characteristics in mountains and implications for conceptualizing bedrock groundwater flow

Influences of hydraulic conductivity (K) heterogeneities on bedrock groundwater (BG) flow systems in mountainous topography are investigated using a conceptual 2D numerical modelling approach. A conceptual model for K heterogeneity in crystalline bedrock mountainous environments is developed based on a review of previous research, and represents heterogeneities due to weathering profile, bedrock fracture characteristics, and catchment-scale (～0.1–1 km) structural features. Numerical groundwater modelling of K scenarios for hypothetical mountain catchment topography indicates that general characteristics of the BG flow directions are dominated by prominent topographic features. Within the modelled saturated BG flow system, ～90 % or more of total BG flux is focussed within a fractured bedrock zone, extending to depths of ～100–200 m below the ground surface, overlying lower-K bedrock. Structural features and heterogeneities, represented as discrete zones of higher or lower K relative to surrounding bedrock, locally influence BG flow, but do not influence general BG flow patterns or general positions of BG flow divides. This result is supported by similar BG transit-time distribution shapes and statistics for systems with and without structural features. The results support the development of topography-based methods for predicting general locations of BG flow-system boundaries in mountain regions.