西藏玛旁雍错地热水地球化学特征及其成因机制分析

西藏地区位于欧亚板块与印度板块碰撞造山带,构造活动强烈,具有丰富的地热资源。本次研究在西藏阿里地区水热活动强烈的玛旁雍错地热田实地采集地表热泉样品进行水化学分析,依据地热水水化学特征,评估研究区热储平衡状态与热储温度,分析地热水在深部的水文地球化学过程,识别地热系统深部热源类型并阐明地热系统成因机制。通过此次研究表明：区内地热水主要为碱性Cl-Na型或HCO₃-Cl-Na型水和酸性SO₄-Na型水,地热水在深部已经与热储围岩达到完全平衡状态,通过地热温标计算热储温度在200℃左右;地热地表显示、热水水化学组分特征、热储温度类型等分析揭示玛旁雍错为岩浆热源型地热系统,地表不同类型地热水是深部母地热流体沿断裂向上运移过程中经不同水文地球化学过程形成。

     

Seepage-heat transfer coupling process of low temperature return water injected into geothermal reservoir in carbonate rocks in Xian County,China

Fracture seepage and heat transfer in the geothermal reservoir of carbonate rocks after the reinjection of low temperature geothermal return water is a complex coupling process,which is also the frontier of geothermal production and reinjection research. Based on the research of cascade comprehensive development of geothermal resources in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (Xian County),the carbonate geothermal reservoir of Wumishan formation in the geothermal field in Xian County is investigated. With the development of the discrete fracture network model and the coupling model of seepage and heat transfer,the numerical solution of seepage field and temperature field with known fracture network is reached using the finite element software COMSOL,and the coupling process of seepage flow and heat in carbonate rocks is revealed. The results show that the distribution of temperature field of fractured rocks in geothermal reservoir of carbonate rocks has strong non-uniformity and anisotropy. The fracture network is interpenetrated,which constitutes the dominant channel of water conduction,and along which the fissure water moves rapidly. Under the influence of convective heat transfer and conductive heat transfer,one of the main factors to be considered in the study of thermal breakthrough is to make the cold front move forward rapidly. When the reinjection and production process continues for a long time and the temperature of the geothermal reservoir on the pumping side drops to a low level,the temperature of bedrocks is still relatively high and continues to supply heat to the fissure water,so that the temperature of the thermal reservoir on the pumping side will not decrease rapidly to the water temperature at the inlet of reinjection,but will gradually decrease after a long period of time,showing an obvious long tail effect. The distribution of fractures will affect the process of seepage and heat transfer in carbonate reservoirs,which should be considered in the study of fluid thermal coupling in carbonate reservoirs.     

新疆塔什库尔干谷地地热资源研究进展

归纳了新疆塔什库尔干谷地地热地质条件,分析了区内地质构造、地温分布、地热流体化学及同位素特征,研究了地热形成机理,计算了曲曼地热田的地热资源量和可开采量。结果表明: 研究区地热资源受断裂构造控制; 地温变化与盖层、完整基岩、断裂带(热储)表现出明显的一致性,目前实测最高热储温度为161 ℃,深部热储计算温度可达222~268 ℃,地温梯度最高为149.20 ℃/100 m; 地热流体具有深循环特征,与浅表冷水的水化学和同位素特征具有明显的差异; 地热流体来源于大气降水,在断裂及裂隙内储存、运移、富集,在侵入岩体放射性生热和结晶余热的热量供应下,地下流体不断与围岩进行热量及物质交换,在热储围岩和盖层中,热量以传导方式为主,在热储内,热量以对流方式为主; 曲曼地热田储存的热量为55.919×10¹¹ MJ,地热流体可开采量约为12 593 m³/d,产能(热能)约为77.9 MW。因此认为,塔什库尔干谷地热储埋藏深度浅,易开采,具有可观的直接和间接经济价值。     

Mineral equilibria and geothermometry of the Dalaman–Köyceğiz thermal springs,southern Turkey

The Dalaman and Köyceğiz thermal springs are from karstic limestones belonging to Upper Cretaceous to Burdigalian Beydağları autochthon and Carboniferous to Lutetian Lycian nappes. They have measured temperatures of 24– 41 °C, specific electrical conductivities of 14,310–45,600 μS/cm, and are dominated by Na (1550–8500 mg/kg) and Cl (2725–15,320 mg/kg). The heat source of the geothermal systems of the area is tectonic related and the occurrence of the thermal springs is related to the young normal faults. Meteoric waters and seawaters recharge the reservoir rocks, are heated at depth with increasing geothermal gradient, and move up to the surface through the fractures and faults by convection trend and emerge as thermal springs. While thermal waters move up to the surface, they mix with different proportions of seawater and cold fresh waters. The seawater contribution to the thermal waters varies from 24% to 78%. Lake waters in the area are connected with thermal waters. Consequently, their chemical composition is influenced by the chemistry of thermal waters. Chemical equilibrium modelling based on measured outlet temperatures and measured pH shows that all the waters are oversaturated with respect to quartz and K-mica and undersaturated with respect to Al(OH)₃, anorthite, gypsum, siderite and SiO₂(a). Albite, alunite, aragonite, Ca-montmorillonite, calcite, chalcedony, chlorite, dolomite, Fe(OH)₃(a), fluorite, gypsum, illite, K-feldspar, kaolinite and sepiolite minerals are mostly oversaturated or undersaturated. Mineral saturation studies of the thermal springs indicate that dolomite, chalcedony and quartz are most likely to cause scaling at outlet conditions. Assessments from various chemical geothermometers, and Na–K–Mg ternary and mineral equilibrium diagrams suggest that the reservoir temperature is around 65–90 °C. The temperatures obtained from quartz, quartz-steam loss, Mg/Li geothermometers and mineral equilibrium diagrams give the most reasonable results.     

Numerical simulations to assess thermal potential at Tauranga low-temperature geothermal system,New Zealand

Tauranga low-temperature geothermal system (New Zealand) has been used for the last 40 years for direct uses including space heating, bathing and greenhouses. Warm-water springs in the area are between 22 and 39 °C, with well temperatures up to 67 °C at 750 m depth. A heat and fluid flow model of the system is used to determine reservoir properties and assess thermal potential. The model covers 130 km by 70 km to 2 km depth, and was calibrated against temperatures measured in 17 wells. Modelling shows that to maintain the observed primarily conductive heat flow regime, bulk permeability is ≤2.5?×?10^?14 m² in sedimentary cover and ≤1?×?10^?16 m² in the underlying volcanic rocks. The preferred model (R ²?=?0.9) corresponds to thermal conductivities of 1.25 and 1.8 W/m² for sedimentary and volcanic rocks, respectively, and maximum heat flux of 350 mW/m². The total surface heat flow is 258 MW over 2,200 km². Heat flux is highest under Tauranga City, which may be related to inferred geology. Model simulations give insights into rock properties and the dynamics of heat flow in this low-temperature geothermal system, and provide a basis to estimate the effects of extracting hot fluid.     

The Thermal Structure of the Upper Mantle in Eastern China——Inferred from the Petrological Model

Cenozoic basalt in eastern China contains abundant ultramafic xenoliths which are specimens of pyrolitesreleased during basaltic magma eruption. A total of 405 P-T data of pyroxene in the ultramafic rocks have beencollected, which present a more precise pyroxene geotherm. The average geothermal gradient in the upper man-tle represented by the pyroxene geotherm is about 3.3℃ / km, which is much less than that derived from theconductive thermal model (≈14℃ / km), implying the great significance of convective heat transfer. The calcu-lation shows that the contributions of convective and conductive heat transfers are 79% and 21%, respectively.The perturbation in the thermal structure of the upper mantle is an important manifestation of thetectonothermal event of Cenozoic continental rifting and intense basaltic volcanism in eastern China. Based onthe pyroxene geotherm and its comparison with the current geothermal field derived from the measurements ofthe surface heat flows, it is suggested that the Moho may be a secondary thermal boundary. The currentgeothermal field and the thermal structure of the lithosphere in eastern China may mainly reflect the result ofthe tectonothermal disturbance in the Neogene-Quaternary, in other words, the lithosphere has just begun toCool.     

Numerical modelling of Alpine deep flow systems: a management and prediction tool for an exploited geothermal reservoir (Lavey-les-Bains, Switzerland)

The geothermal site of Lavey-les-Bains, Switzerland is an Alpine deep flow system in fractured crystalline rocks. Groundwater analyses since 1973 reveal a mixing process between a deep warm component (68°C and TDS 1.4 g/L) and cold shallow water. The production rate of the new deep well P600, installed in 1997, has amplified this mixing process in well P201, for which a decline in temperature and TDS has been observed. Numerical hydrogeological two-dimensional and three-dimensional models of heat, flow and mass transport have been developed to reproduce the geothermal system and to forecast the long-term exploitation potential of the geothermal resource. The computed temperature of the deep inferred reservoir (100–130°C) is in agreement with the geothermometers, whereas the simulated thermal water flux (5,400–9,000 m³/day) is probably underestimated. Different fluid production scenarios can reproduce the decline and stabilization phases of temperatures in the geothermal field since 1997. For P201, the mixing ratio calculated before and during the exploitation of P600 is comparable with observed data; the modelled temperature tends towards stabilization in P201 at 56°C after 10–15 years of production at P600. Another proposed new well is likely to reduce the thermal output of the existing wells.     

Hydrogeochemistry of thermal and mineralized waters in the Diyadin (Ağri) area,Eastern Turkey

The Diyadin Geothermal area, located in the eastern part of Anatolia (Turkey) where there has been recent volcanic activity, is favorable for the formation of geothermal systems. Indeed, the Diyadin geothermal system is located in an active geodynamic zone, where strike-slip faults and tensional cracks have developed due to N–S regional compression. The area is characterized by closely spaced thermal and mineralized springs, with temperatures in the range 30–64 °C, and flowrates 0.5–10 L/s. Thermal spring waters are mainly of Ca(Na)-HCO₃ and Ca(Mg)-SO₄ types, with high salinity, while cold groundwater is mostly of Ca(Na, Mg)-HCO₃ type, with lower salinity. High contents of some minor elements in thermal waters, such as F, B, Li, Rb, Sr and Cs probably derive from enhanced water–rock interaction.Thermal water samples collected from Diyadin are far from chemical equilibrium as the waters flow upward from reservoirs towards spring vents and possibly mix with cooler waters. The temperatures of the deep geothermal reservoirs are estimated to be between 92 and 156 °C in Diyadin field, based on quartz geothermometry, while slightly lower estimates are obtained using chalcedony geothermometers. The isotopic composition of thermal water (δ¹⁸O, δ²H, δ³H) indicates their deep-circulating meteoric origin. The waters are likely to have originated from the percolation of rainwater along fractures and faults to the deep hot reservoir. Subsequent heating by conduction due to the presence of an intrusive cupola associated with the Tendurek volcano, is followed by the ascent of deep waters to the surface along faults and fractures that act as hydrothermal conduits.Modeling of the geothermal fluids indicates that the fluid is oversaturated with calcite, aragonite and dolomite, which matches travertine precipitation in the discharge area. Likewise, the fluid is oversaturated with respect to quartz, and chalcedony indicating the possibility of siliceous precipitation near the discharge areas. A conceptual hydro-geochemical model of the Diyadin thermal waters based on the isotope and chemical analytical results, has been constructed.     

北京城区地热田某地热井热水地球化学研究

地热的开采会引起热储压力的降低 ,从而引起热流场的改变。热储压力的降低可能导致温度较低的地下水的流入 ,也可能导致深部更高温度热流体的补充 ,从而引起地热流体化学特征的变化。地热流体中一些组分的浓度依赖于热流体温度的高低。不同温度的水发生混合会破坏地热系统的化学平衡 ,从而改变地热流体的化学成分。因此 ,地热流体的化学监测可以提供许多有关地热系统变化的宝贵信息。由于长期开采 ,北京城区地热田的压力明显下降 ,并引起了地热水化学成分的细微变化。根据 1984年以来一眼地热井的地热水化学监测资料 ,研究了地热水的化学成分、地球化学温标的变化规律以及地热活动的总体强度和水 /岩平衡矿物中的示温矿物的变化趋势 ,说明地热的开采既引起了地热田水补给的加强 ,又导致了地热田热补给的加强     

Analytical solutions for transient temperature distribution in a geothermal reservoir due to cold water injection

An analytical solution to describe the transient temperature distribution in a geothermal reservoir in response to injection of cold water is presented. The reservoir is composed of a confined aquifer, sandwiched between rocks of different thermo-geological properties. The heat transport processes considered are advection, longitudinal conduction in the geothermal aquifer, and the conductive heat transfer to the underlying and overlying rocks of different geological properties. The one-dimensional heat transfer equation has been solved using the Laplace transform with the assumption of constant density and thermal properties of both rock and fluid. Two simple solutions are derived afterwards, first neglecting the longitudinal conductive heat transport and then heat transport to confining rocks. Results show that heat loss to the confining rock layers plays a vital role in slowing down the cooling of the reservoir. The influence of some parameters, e.g. the volumetric injection rate, the longitudinal thermal conductivity and the porosity of the porous media, on the transient heat transport phenomenon is judged by observing the variation of the transient temperature distribution with different values of the parameters. The effects of injection rate and thermal conductivity have been found to be profound on the results.     

Properties of geothermal resources in Kebilli region, Southwestern Tunisia

The Kebilli region is located in the Southwestern part of Tunisia, and is characterized by the presence of deep and shallow geothermal systems (continental intercalary and complex terminal). Chemical and isotopic contents are used to classify the type and determine the origin of thermal water. An evaluation of reservoir temperature and a possible geothermal fluid mixing are also carried out. Both continental intercalary-deep aquifer and complex terminal-shallow aquifer are of Na–(Ca)–Cl–(SO₄) mixed water type. The use of different geothermometers and the computation of saturation indexes for different solid phases suggests that the thermal reservoir temperature of the continental intercalary is between 92 and 105 °C, while the fluid temperature from the shallow complex terminal aquifer ranges from 50 to 75 °C. Also, the isotopic data indicates the old origin of all groundwater of Southwestern Tunisia. Mixing effects characterizing the continental intercalary and the complex terminal aquifers were identified using δ²H and δ¹⁸O relationship. It appears that the upward movement of thermal water from the deep aquifer to shallow ones is probably due to the abundant fractures in the research area.     

沧县隆起中段献县凸起和阜城凹陷岩溶型地热资源特征

为探究华北平原的岩溶热储分布规律,以及如何高效开发利用献县凸起和阜城凹陷地热田的地热资源,结合前人研究成果与已有地热井的测井、地震、水化学等资料,分析了岩溶热储分布规律以及献县凸起和阜城凹陷地热田的四大要素即"源、储、通、盖"等地热地质条件,建立了地热田概念模型,并精细评价了地热资源量.研究表明地热田是形成于渤海湾盆地...     

容城地热田雾迷山组碳酸盐岩热储层裂缝主控因素及成因机制

容城地热田雾迷山组是华北地区典型的低孔隙度碳酸盐岩热储层,也是地热流体勘探的主要目标。裂缝对研究区地热流体的富集和产能有重要影响。本文通过对研究区岩心、薄片和成像测井等资料的分析,确定了裂缝的发育特征、控制因素和形成期次。结果表明容城地热田雾迷山组碳酸盐岩热储层裂缝多为未充填的高角度斜交缝,11.8%的裂缝被方解石和石英脉充填。裂缝开度主要集中在0~2 mm,靠近断裂的D19井开度最大（均值为3.65 mm）,孔隙度也最大（均值为0.752 3%）,裂缝孔隙度随开度的增大线性增加。裂缝在断裂附近或者构造应力场较大的区域更为发育,受构造作用影响最明显。在同一构造环境和应力场下,岩性是控制研究区裂缝发育的主导因素。容城地热田雾迷山组碳酸盐岩热储层裂缝大致分为3组,印支期形成的NNE-SSW与NW-SE向“X”型共轭剪裂缝,燕山晚期形成的NEE-SWW向剪裂缝,以及喜马拉雅期形成的近E-W向张裂缝。

     

广东新丰地热资源特征及成因

广东潮州新丰地区蕴藏着丰富的地热资源。为查明该区地热资源成因,更好地寻找和利用当地的地热资源,对该区地质背景、地热地质条件、地热流体特征及成因等进行了综合研究,认为该区属于典型的断裂裂隙型地热资源,盖层为地表第四系,地热水补给来源主要为大气降水和地表水,断层在控热和导热的作用下提供热量,形成临时孔隙型和岩体裂隙型热储。     

Hydrochemistry and gas geochemistry of the northeastern Algerian geothermal waters

This study focuses on the water and gas chemistry of the northeastern Algerian thermal waters. The helium gas was used to detect the origin of the geothermal fluid. In the Guelma Basin, the heat flow map shows an anomaly of 120 ± 20 mW/m² linked to the highly conductive Triassic extrusion. The chemical database reveals the existence of three water types, Ca-SO₄/Na-Cl, which are related to evaporites and rich in halite and gypsum minerals. The third type is Ca (Na)-HCO₃, which mostly characterizes the carbonated Tellian sector. The origin of thermal waters using a gas-mixing model indicates a meteoric origin, except for the El Biban hot spring (W10), which shows a He/Ar ratio of 0.213, thus suggesting the presence of batholith. The helium distribution map indicates a lower ³He/⁴He ratio between 0 Ra and 0.04 Ra in the W10 and W15 samples, which is compatible with the crustal ratio. Reservoir temperatures estimated by silica geothermometers give temperatures less than 133 °C. The geothermal conceptual model suggests that a geothermal system was developed by the deep penetration of infiltrated cold waters to a depth of 2.5 km and then heated by a conductive heat source (batholith for El Biban case). The thermal waters rise up to the surface through the deep-seated fractures. During their ascension, they are mixed with shallow cold groundwater, which increase the Mg content and cause the immature classification of the water samples.     

黑龙江省林甸地热田成因分析及资源评价

为深入分析林甸地热田的形成模式, 准确评价地热流体资源量, 采用地质调查、地球物理勘查、地热钻探、地球物理测井、水位监测等地质勘查方法, 对地热田的成因机制与资源量进行了综合研究。结果表明, 林甸地热田的热源主要为幔源热、基底花岗岩放射性元素衰变产热及深大断裂摩擦生热。地热田热储以各类砂岩为主, 中生代白垩系泉头组三四段、青山口组和姚家组为热储主要发育层位。主要热储埋藏深度为940~2062 m, 热储层累计厚度为150~240 m。林甸断裂、林甸东断裂、黑鱼泡凹陷西部边界断层3条深大断裂为深部热量向上部地层中传导的良好通道。同时, 白垩系热储层之上沉积了嫩江组、四方台组、明水组巨厚泥性岩层, 为良好的隔热盖层。经计算, 林甸地热田的地热能储量为6.95×1019 J, 地热流体储存量为9.78×1010 m3, 地热流体可开采量为9.84×107 m3/a, 产能为694.13 MW, 属大型地热田。经水位监测, 2017年林甸镇地热资源开采量达到最大值, 水位到最低点, 超出了最大允许开采量, 应进行回灌。通过对林甸地热田的成因分析、资源评价及动态监测, 为今后地热田的勘查、开发利用规划、采矿权设置等提供了技术支撑。     

山东省惠民县八里庄地热田特征及开发利用探讨

在阐述惠民县八里庄地区地热田地质条件,热储层、热储盖层特征、地温场及地热流体化学特征的基础上,对地热田流体质量、地热资源量进行了初步评价,并对地热田的合理开发利用提出了科学的单井保护半径和布设井的数量。     

盆地潜凸起岩溶热储地热田成因机理：以菏泽潜凸起为例

盆地潜凸起岩溶热储地热田是我国主要供暖用热储之一,具有分布面积广、水温高、水量大等特点,是北方清洁供暖的重要可再生热源。本文以菏泽潜凸起岩溶热储地热田为例,通过地质构造、岩溶发育特征、同位素和水文地球化学特征、地温场空间分布规律、地热水动力场的系统分析,揭示地热田岩溶地热水补给源、运移途径和富集机理：地热水来源于东北部梁山、东部嘉祥一带基岩山区大气降水入渗补给,主要循环富集于层间岩溶与断裂破碎带复合处。根据地温场空间分布特征揭示的热源及其传递和聚集特征,提出了四元聚热机制,一元是大地热流毯状传导聚热、二元是凸起区高热导率分流聚热、三元是导热断裂或岩体接触带带状对流聚热、四元是地下水运移传导-对流聚热。在热储富集和聚热成因机理研究基础上,构建了基于水源、热源及深部岩溶发育特征的地热田成因机理模型,揭示了地热能富集规律。     

鄂尔多斯盆地姬塬油田长6致密砂岩储层成因机理

鄂尔多斯盆地姬塬油田长6储层原油储量丰富,储层致密制约着油气的勘探开发潜力和评价精度.通过开展物性、粒度、铸体薄片、X衍射、扫描电镜、压汞等测试研究储层特征,以时间为主轴,综合成岩史、埋藏史、地热史、构造等因素,采用“成岩作用模拟”和“地质效应模拟”构建孔隙度演化模型及计算方法探讨致密储层成因机理.结果表明:储层经过较强的演化改造发育微-纳米孔喉系统,形成低孔特低孔-超低渗的致密砂岩储层.H53井长6段孔隙度演化史揭示了增孔和减孔因素对孔隙度及油气充注的影响;通过对比最大粒间孔面孔率、最大溶蚀面孔率、最大压实率、最大胶结率样品孔隙度演化路径和含油饱和度,查明了致密储层成因的差异及品质.      

Isotope–geochemical characterization and geothermometrical modeling of Uttarakhand geothermal field,India

Uttarakhand geothermal area, located in the central belt of the Himalayan geothermal province, is one of the important high temperature geothermal fields in India. In this study, the chemical characteristics of the thermal waters are investigated to identify the main geochemical processes affecting the composition of thermal waters during its ascent toward the surface as well as to determine the subsurface temperature of the feeding reservoir. The thermal waters are mainly Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type with moderate silica and TDS concentrations. Mineral saturation states calculated from PHREEQC geochemical code indicate that thermal waters are supersaturated with respect to calcite, dolomite, aragonite, chalcedony, quartz (SI > 0), and undersaturated with respect to gypsum, anhydrite, and amorphous silica (SI < 0). XRD study of the spring deposit samples fairly corroborates the predicted mineral saturation state of the thermal waters. Stable isotopes (δ¹⁸O, δ²H) data confirm the meteoric origin of the thermal waters with no oxygen-18 shift. The mixing phenomenon between thermal water with shallow ground water is substantiated using tritium (³H) and chemical data. The extent of dilution is quantified using tritium content of thermal springs and non-thermal waters. Classical geothermometers, mixing model, and multicomponent fluid geothermometry modeling (GeoT) have been applied to estimate the subsurface reservoir temperature. Among different classical geothermometers, only quartz geothermometer provide somewhat reliable estimation (96–140 °C) of the reservoir temperature. GeoT modeling results suggest that thermal waters have attained simultaneous equilibrium with respect to minerals like calcite, quartz, chalcedony, brucite, tridymite, cristobalite, talc, at the temperature 130 ± 5 °C which is in good agreement with the result obtained from the mixing model.