Fairness of China’s provincial energy environment efficiency evaluation: empirical analysis using a three-stage data envelopment analysis model

China has become the world’s largest carbon emitter since 2007; thus, reducing future emission has become an arduous task. Calculating energy efficiency fairly is paramount for formulating energy policies, given the different development levels of provinces. This study employed a three-stage data envelopment analysis model that considered environmental constraints to evaluate the energy efficiency of China’s 30 provinces in 2015 and redefined traditional energy efficiency as energy environment efficiency which calculated under environmental constraints. Different factors, such as urban development level and industrial structure in relation to energy environment efficiency, were analyzed. Three main results were obtained. First, the average energy environment efficiency in 2015 was only 0.73, which showed that China has roughly 30% capacity for improvement in the future. Second, stochastic frontier analysis demonstrated that the industrial structure, energy consumption structure, and central heating systems exerted negative impacts, and the level of city design and the degree of openness exerted positive effects on energy environment efficiency. Third, capital, manpower, and the extent of industrial concentration in central and western regions should be increased to improve China’s energy environment efficiency.

     

Using LMDI method to analyze the influencing factors of carbon emissions in China’s petrochemical industries

China’s petrochemical industries are playing an important role in China’s economic development. However, the industries consume large amounts of energy and have become primary sources of carbon emission. In this paper, the change in carbon emissions from China’s petrochemical industries between 2000 and 2010 was quantitatively analyzed with the Log-Mean Divisia Index method, which was decomposed into economic output effect, industrial structural effect and technical effect. The results show that economic output effect is the most important factor driving carbon emission growth in China’s petrochemical industries; industrial structural effect has certain decrement effect on carbon emissions; adjustment of industrial structure by developing low-carbon emission industrial sectors may be a better choice for reducing carbon emissions; and the impact of technical effect varies considerably without showing any clear decrement effect trend over the period of year 2000–2010. The biggest challenge is how to make use of these factors to balance the relationship between economic development and carbon emissions. This study will promote a more comprehensive understanding of the inter-relationships of economic development, industrial structural shift, technical effect and carbon emissions in China’s petrochemical industries and is helpful for exploration of relevant strategies to reduce carbon emissions.

     

Using LMDI method to analyze the influencing factors of carbon emissions in China’s petrochemical industries

China’s petrochemical industries are playing an important role in China’s economic development. However, the industries consume large amounts of energy and have become primary sources of carbon emission. In this paper, the change in carbon emissions from China’s petrochemical industries between 2000 and 2010 was quantitatively analyzed with the Log-Mean Divisia Index method, which was decomposed into economic output effect, industrial structural effect and technical effect. The results show that economic output effect is the most important factor driving carbon emission growth in China’s petrochemical industries; industrial structural effect has certain decrement effect on carbon emissions; adjustment of industrial structure by developing low-carbon emission industrial sectors may be a better choice for reducing carbon emissions; and the impact of technical effect varies considerably without showing any clear decrement effect trend over the period of year 2000–2010. The biggest challenge is how to make use of these factors to balance the relationship between economic development and carbon emissions. This study will promote a more comprehensive understanding of the inter-relationships of economic development, industrial structural shift, technical effect and carbon emissions in China’s petrochemical industries and is helpful for exploration of relevant strategies to reduce carbon emissions.     

The effect of directed technical change on carbon dioxide emissions: evidence from China’s industrial sector at the provincial level

Technical change has a pivotal role to play in low-carbon development. Recent research has offered different insights regarding the effect of technical change on CO₂ emissions but ignored the bias of technical changes which lead to changes in CO₂ emissions. To fill the gap, this paper uses the 2008 to 2015 provincial-level data on China’s 22 industrial sub-sectors to investigate both the effect of directed technical change on CO₂ emissions and its heterogeneity. We find that the technical change in most industrial sectors in China was capital-biased, although a labor-biased trend was evident. Labor-biased technical change is conducive to CO₂ reduction, while capital-biased technical change has the opposite effect. Moreover, this effect is different by developmental periods, industries, and regions. Therefore, we propose that the government promotes labor-biased technical change based on the differentiated characteristics.

     

Evolution of silica accumulation in the earth’s history and its relation to biota development

Two branches of silica rockevolution related to oceans and continental blocks have been outlined. The boundaries of changes in types of silica rocks, their formation, and development of the organic world were established: (i) the beginning of the Phanerozoic was related to transformation from microbial to biogenic silica deposition (or to a change in the influence of microbial activity on silica accumulation); (ii) cessation of the formation of cherts enriched in organic matter, which was synchronized with land colonization by organisms in the Devonian, and (iii) an explosive style of global silica accumulation related to the appearance and development of diatoms, which correlates with appearance of angiosperm plants in tropical forests.     

Study on the CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions embodied in the trade of China’s steel industry: based on the input–output model

The impact of trade on the environment and the climate has become a focus of attention. Tending to develop industries with higher added values, developed countries rely on importing high energy consumption goods from developing countries, and however, some CO₂ emissions are embodied in the process of import. Currently, the accounting method of the territorial responsibility used to get the international data of greenhouse gas inventories ignores the difference between domestic consumption and export demands. Thus, developing countries bear the responsibility of pollution emissions from the export. The steel industry is an important basic industry of China’s national economy as well as a vital part in the industrial system. With the expansion of trade scale, the impact of the export and import of China’s steel on CO₂ emissions is growing. This paper studied the embodied CO₂ emissions in the trade of China’s steel from 2005 to 2014, using the input–output model and the trade data of the China’s steel imports and exports. The results indicate that (1) the complete CO₂ emissions of China’s steel industry are high. (2) The increase in the export scale makes the embodied CO₂ emissions in the trade of China’s steel export increase, and (3) China is a net exporter of CO₂ emissions in the steel trade. Especially after 2007, the value of China’s steel exports has been larger than that of China’s steel imports, so China had borne much CO₂ emissions responsibility in the trade of China’s steel. Therefore, this paper puts forward that, in the future, the export structure of goods should be optimized into the high-tech products with the high added value, low energy consumption and low carbon emissions, and meanwhile, service industry is promoted to improve technical support to reduce CO₂ emissions in the steel industry.     

Using decomposition analysis to evaluate the performance of China’s 30 provinces in CO2 emission reductions over 2005–2009

This paper aims to evaluate the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions reduction performance of 30 mainland provinces in China over 2005?C2009. First, the log-mean Divisia index (LMDI) technique is used to decompose the changes in CO₂ emissions at the provincial level into 4 effects that are carbon intensity effect, energy mix effect, energy intensity effect and gross domestic product (GDP) effect. Next, two indicators, decoupling index and rescaled decoupling index, are implemented to evaluate the performance of 30 provinces in CO₂ emission reduction from 2005 to 2009. The decomposition result shows that the GDP growth is mainly responsible for the CO₂ emissions increase, while the energy intensity effect is the key factor for the decrease in CO₂ emissions in each province. Moreover, according to the evaluation, the performance of each province in what concerns the CO₂ emission reduction varies significantly. Most provinces in China made significant efforts in emissions reduction during 2005?C2009, while some provinces only made weak efforts or even no efforts in decoupling progress.     

Understanding the challenges for the governance of China’s “sponge cities” initiative to sustainably manage urban stormwater and flooding

Natural Hazards - China is a country with severe water problems. In recent years, urban flooding has become even more frequent, pervasive and severe, threatening China’s development. To...     

Evaluation of changes in ecological security in China’s Qinghai Lake Basin from 2000 to 2013 and the relationship to land use and climate change

Ecological security evaluation is an important way to identify the need for improvement in a watershed and to assess the degree of regional sustainable development. Using a driver–pressure–state–exposure–response model, a comprehensive system of ecological security indicators was developed, and it was demonstrated in a case study of the main ecological problems facing the Qinghai Lake Basin. Indicators of the status of the natural ecological environment, socioeconomic pressure, and the degree of environmental damage were chosen to develop the model, and comprehensively evaluated the basin’s ecological security in 2000, 2004, 2009, and 2013 to reveal changes in the ecological security in response to changing climate and land use. The overall ecological security of the basin improved from 2000 to 2013, with considerable restoration and reconstruction of the ecosystem. From 2000 to 2004, environmental deterioration increased slightly as a result of pollution caused by human activities, excess land reclamation for agriculture, land desertification, and grassland degeneration. However, the obvious effect of ecological protection policies, such as conversion of farmland into grassland and stall feeding of livestock instead of grazing, led to improvement of the ecological environment from 2004 to 2013. Ecological security in the basin increased with increasing precipitation during the study period.     

Neighbourhood redevelopment and the making of a housing middle class: Can gentrification explain China’s spatial and social changes?

GeoJournal - This paper addresses the relationship between spatial change and social process in China. Studies in Anglo-American and European cities usually suggest middle classes move into a...     

Daily and seasonal stem radial activity of Populus euphratica and its association with hydroclimatic factors in the lower reaches of China’s Heihe River basin

The Vado Carranza dump, located in the Mexicali Valley, Baja California, northwest Mexico, was operated for more than 15 years receiving about 30 tons/day of solid wastes. The disposed wastes were periodically burned in open air. The presence of a shallow aquifer in the area makes the groundwater vulnerable to contamination processes. The purpose of this study was the evaluation of heavy metals content (Cu, Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn) in soil and groundwater in the vicinity of this dump. The results indicate high content of metals in soil, mainly at a superficial level, with the highest concentrations in the areas where burning of wastes occurred. Elevated concentrations of cadmium and copper were detected in groundwater with the highest concentrations occurring in monitoring wells located in the north side of the dump, downward of groundwater flow. Although the high content of metals in soil can be attributed to the burning of waste, other sources of pollution could be the agricultural irrigation in the vicinity of the dump. The program PHREEQC was used to model the geochemical evolution of groundwater. Results suggest that evaporation of the contaminated waters circulating below the landfill is one of the key processes that explain the increased concentration of contaminants in groundwater and its seasonal variations. As groundwater flows away from the dump, evaporation can concentrate the chemicals making the water more toxic. These results are important because they illustrate processes that are likely to occur in landfills located in other desert areas of the world.     

Who’s at-risk? A case study of the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of census tracts experiencing predatory and abusive mortgage lending in Philadelphia

Predatory lending and abusive practices arose as a serious danger by increasing the threat of foreclosure and bankruptcy and decreasing the equity accumulated in a housing unit, reducing many of the economic benefits of homeownership. This article describes the characteristics of areas who likely suffered from abusive mortgage lending using Census data, Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data, and publicly recorded mortgage data. A proxy measure of predatory lending is developed based on the loan-to-value (LTV) ratio and state anti-predatory lending regulations, and represents excessively leveraged properties. Discriminant analysis is used to distinguish between areas with these highly leveraged properties and other parts of the City of Philadelphia. The residuals are mapped to evaluate the spatial dimension of the discriminant models across the city. This examination of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics informs efforts to mitigate the consequences and prevent future occurrences of both predatory lending and other manifestations of inequality by viewing it as a spatial and neighborhood phenomenon.     

An experimental database for the development,calibration and verification of constitutive models for sand with focus to cyclic loading: part II—tests with strain cycles and combined loading

For numerical studies of geotechnical structures under earthquake loading, aiming to examine a possible failure due to liquefaction, using a sophisticated constitutive model for the soil is indispensable. Such model must adequately describe the material response to a cyclic loading under constant volume (undrained) conditions, amongst others the relaxation of effective stress (pore pressure accumulation) or the effective stress loops repeatedly passed through after a sufficiently large number of cycles (cyclic mobility, stress attractors). The soil behaviour under undrained cyclic loading is manifold, depending on the initial conditions (e.g. density, fabric, effective mean pressure, stress ratio) and the load characteristics (e.g. amplitude of the cycles, application of stress or strain cycles). In order to develop, calibrate and verify a constitutive model with focus to undrained cyclic loading, the data from high-quality laboratory tests comprising a variety of initial conditions and load characteristics are necessary. It is the purpose of these two companion papers to provide such database collected for a fine sand. Part II concentrates on the undrained triaxial tests with strain cycles, where a large range of strain amplitudes has been studied. Furthermore, oedometric and isotropic compression tests as well as drained triaxial tests with un- and reloading cycles are discussed. A combined monotonic and cyclic loading has been also studied in undrained triaxial tests. All test data presented herein will be available from the homepage of the first author. As an example of the examination of an existing constitutive model, the experimental data are compared to element test simulations using hypoplasticity with intergranular strain.     

An experimental database for the development,calibration and verification of constitutive models for sand with focus to cyclic loading: part I—tests with monotonic loading and stress cycles

For numerical studies of geotechnical structures under earthquake loading, aiming to examine a possible failure due to liquefaction, using a sophisticated constitutive model for the soil is indispensable. Such a model must adequately describe the material response to a cyclic loading under constant volume (undrained) conditions, amongst others the relaxation of effective stress (pore pressure accumulation) or the effective stress loops repeatedly passed through after a sufficiently large number of cycles (cyclic mobility, stress attractors). The soil behaviour under undrained cyclic loading is manifold, depending on the initial conditions (e.g. density, fabric, effective mean pressure, stress ratio) and the load characteristics (e.g. amplitude of the cycles, application of stress or strain cycles). In order to develop, calibrate and verify a constitutive model with focus to undrained cyclic loading, the data from high-quality laboratory tests comprising a variety of initial conditions and load characteristics are necessary. The purpose of these two companion papers was to provide such database collected for a fine sand. The database consists of numerous undrained cyclic triaxial tests with stress or strain cycles applied to samples consolidated isotropically or anisotropically. Monotonic triaxial tests with drained or undrained conditions have also been performed. Furthermore, drained triaxial, oedometric or isotropic compression tests with several un- and reloading cycles are presented. Part I concentrates on the triaxial tests with monotonic loading or stress cycles. All test data presented herein will be available from the homepage of the first author. As an example of the examination of an existing constitutive model, the experimental data are compared to element test simulations using hypoplasticity with intergranular strain.     

Religious belief and Tibetans’ response to earthquake disaster: a case study of the 2010 Ms 7.1 Yushu earthquake,Qinghai Province,China

Natural Hazards - Based on data from a questionnaire survey about the 2010 Ms 7.1 Yushu earthquake in Qinghai Province, China, this study examines the impacts of belief in Tibetan Buddhism on...     

Estimation of the composition of the Earth’s primary aqueous phase. 2. Synthesis from the mantle and igneous rock material. Comparison with synthesis from the carbonaceous chondrite material

Simulation results of the equilibrium state of systems water-carbonaceous chondrite material, water-primary mantle material, water-ultramafic rock material, and water-mafic rock material open with respect to carbon dioxide and methane at 25°C, 1 bar indicate that highly alkaline reduced aqueous solutions with K/Na > 1 can be formed only if water is in equilibrium with compositions close to those of continental crust and primitive mantle. Yu.V. Natochin’s hypothesis that the living cell can be formed only in an aqueous environment with K/Na > 1 leads to the conclusion that terrestrial life could arise and further evolve on the Earth during the differentiation of primary chondritic material into the Earth’s core and mantle (during the first few million years of the planet’s lifetime) in an alkaline (pH 9–10) reduced (Eh = −400–500 mV) aqueous solution at a temperature of 50–60°C, in equilibrium with an N₂-bearing atmosphere, which also contained CH₄ (partial pressure from 10⁻² to 10⁻⁸ bar), CO₂ (partial pressure from 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁸ bar), NH₃, H₂, H₂S, CO, and other gases.     

An improved cubic model for the mutual solubilities of CO2–CH4–H2S–brine systems to high temperature,pressure and salinity

The phase behavior of CO₂–CH₄–H₂S–brine systems is of importance for geological storage of greenhouse gases, sour gas disposal and enhanced oil recovery (EOR). In such projects, reservoir simulations play a major role in assisting decision makings, while modeling the phase behavior of the relevant CO₂–CH₄–H₂S–brine system is a key part of the simulation. There is a need for an equation of state (EOS) for such system which is accurate, with wide application range (pressure, temperature and aqueous salinity), computationally efficient and easy for implementation in a reservoir simulator.In this study, an improved cubic EOS model of the system CO₂–CH₄–H₂S–brine is developed based on the modifications of the binary interaction parameters in Peng–Robinson EOS, which is widely implemented in reservoir simulators. Thus the new model is suited for numerical implementation in reservoir simulators.The available experimental data of pure gas brine equilibrium and gas mixture solubility in water/brine are carefully reviewed and compared with the new model. From the comparison, the new model can accurately reproduce (1) the CO₂–brine mutual solubility data at temperature from 0 °C to 250 °C, pressure from 1 bar to 1000 bar and NaCl molality (mole number in 1 kg water, molal is used for short) from 0 to 6 molal, (2) CH₄–brine mutual solubility data at temperature from 0 °C to 250 °C, pressure from 1 bar to 2000 bar and NaCl molality from 0 to 6 molal, (3) H₂S–brine mutual solubility data at temperature from 0 °C to 250 °C, pressure from 1 bar to 200 bar and NaCl molality from 0 to 6 molal, and (4) has good accuracy for gas mixture solubility in brine.