19世纪以来全球蛇绿岩研究综述

蛇绿岩普遍被发现在碰撞型和增生型两种造山带缝合线上,因此经常被用来确定板块边界。自从欧洲地质学家在19世纪早期提出蛇绿岩的概念以来,蛇绿岩的研究经历了几个发展阶段。早期研究认为蛇绿岩是侵入地槽的一套侵入岩;板块构造理论兴起后,蛇绿岩被认为是产生于大洋中脊的洋壳;在1972年的Penrose会议上,科学家们将蛇绿岩定义为一套从基性岩到超基性岩的,可以区分的复式岩体。此后,蛇绿岩的起源(构造背景),侵位机制,特征等研究都取得了很多进展。进入21世纪,出现了一些较好的蛇绿岩形成模式和划分方法。     

农村居民点整理中传统村落保护问题探析

农村居民点整理不仅要在改善农村生产生活条件、促进新农村建设和城乡一体化发展等方面发挥重要作用,还应在乡土建筑文化保护与传承做出贡献。该文探讨现代村落与传统村落的内涵,并将传统村落区分为一般传统村落和特殊传统村落;分析了传统村落保护状况;提出了农村居民点整理中传统村落保护内容;根据不同的村落类型提出了相应的整理模式与整理方向。     

南极乔治王岛末次冰期以来的环境事件

末次冰期以来环境演变事件为末次冰期冰盖扩张事件。南设德兰群岛当时为一相连的大岛,乔冶王岛上的冰川有可能来自南极半岛。全新世冰退模式和冰进事件表现为由统一冰盖分解成三个小冰帽,然后再逐渐消失。现冰川以每年约1.3m的速度后退。冰退之后地壳存在明显的均衡补偿抬升,表现为沿海地区发育了5—6级上升海岸阶地,现地壳以每年6—10mm的速率在抬升。     

Possibilities of agricultural settlements in the northern coastal area of Kenya —an analysis of relevant climatic factors

Kenya is one of those African countries with a very high population pressure. In cultivatable areas we find up to 650 rural inhabitants per sq km. The search for new possibilities of agricultural settlement is an indispensable task. Many sciences are involved, also the geography of climates. Probably the largest potential settlement area from the climatic point of view is the Northern coastal zone. It has been settled in medieval times much more densely than today. War-like invasions of nomads have decreased the population since the 16th century. The average density of the cultivatable strip has been less than 5 inhabitants per sqkm in the last census year 1969. New settlement schemes have been developed since 1970, but they face the difficulty to choose the right varieties of crops. Careful climatic investigations are necessary for the further selection of areas and for the agricultural extension service. Here, only a first approach has been made. The main emphasis was laid on the effective rainfall in the so-called agrohumid period of the year and its probability. A new system of climatic classification was applied to give a frame for further, more specialised studies.     

The spatial pattern of Bedouin Sedentarization in Israel

The bedouin in Israel form a small group (13%) within the state's Arab minority, and they completed their transition stage towards settled habits in the middle of the present century with the establishment of a relatively high number of villages and hamlets. It is the object of this paper to examine and define the nature of these patterns of rural settlements, which emerged in the two distinctive areas of Galilee and the Negev.The discussion in this paper is confined to the period of the state of Israel (1948–83), when changes in both the processes and the patterns of bedouin sedentarization took place under entirely new political conditions. After the establishment of the Jewish State of Israel in 1948, both Galilee and Negev bedouin sedentarization was completed within a period of a single decade (1950–60). However, the sedentarization pattern has further evolved during the past two decades and is likely to continue to do so until the end of the present century.In the Israeli period, the pattern of bedouin sedentarization has developed in two distinct directions. First, the bedouin themselves have built permanent structures for residential purposes, a process usually referred to as spontaneous bedouin settlement. Secondly, the state authorities have planned and established settlements. In this planned bedouin settlement, the state has been dominant in shaping the pattern. It is important to note that most bedouin settlement in Israel belong in the first category where the whole tribe or individual groups were the initiators of their settlements. This paper which was written by an author who belongs to the bedouin community, is based mostly upon fresh evidence from field research data, and is the first attempt to indicate the importance of the role of the state in shaping the settlement pattern. It is hoped to contribute to the study of nomadism as well as to the study of the Arabs in Israel.Paper presented at the 25th International Geographical Congress Paris 27–31 August 1984. The author would like to thank the Centre for Arab Heritage without whose support his attendance at this conference would not have been possible.     

The first field-based descriptions of pumping-induced saltwater intrusion and upconing

Development of the ideas about the equilibrium between freshwater and saline water has received considerable attention in the literature, but little has been written so far about the earliest scientific works about well salinization. Based on a review of the literature from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, this historical note explores how insights into groundwater abstraction and saltwater intrusion developed, and examples of the earliest field studies are provided. Fundamental research was driven by the need for increasing water supply, but the progress of science did not lead to sustainable management practices everywhere. Research outcomes were shared between scientists of different countries, marking the beginning of coastal hydrogeology as a scientific specialization in the first decade of the 20th century.     

The impact of political transformation on employment in the Transkei bureaucracy and civil service in Umtata,South Africa since 1994

The demise of South African Apartheid Planning in 1994 and subsequent lost of Umtata’s capital status when the Transkei was subsumed into the new Eastern Cape Province resulted in the major political transformation of the Transkei state. Central to the post-apartheid transformation was restructuring of Transkei bureaucracy which at the time of South Africa’s independence in 1994 displayed abnormalities. This paper documents the restructuring of the Transkei bureaucracy focusing on Umtata since 1994. The study has brought to the forefront the following facts: Firstly, that at the time of the Transkei merger into South Africa, employment in the government was ‘booming’ and to greater extent it was affected by Umtata’s role—being the capital city of the pseudo-Transkei state. Secondly, the post 1994-political transformation of the Transkei Bantustan impacted negatively on Umtata’s employment notably the civil service sector by ‘squeezing’ it during the early years of democracy (1994–2000). Thirdly, since 2001, with Umtata serving as the major urban centre of both King Sabata Local Municipality and OR Tambo District Municipality, employment in the civil service and municipality has been revitalized.     

Mitigation of Flooding and Cyclone Hazard in Orissa, India

Storm surges generated by the strong tangential wind stressesand normal atmospheric pressure gradients at the sea surface due to tropical cyclones (TC'S)have been studied with the goal of detecting any significant and systematic changes due to climatechange. Cyclone and storm surge data for the 19th and 20th centuries for the Bay of Bengalcoast of the state of Orissa in India are available to varying degrees of quality and detail,the data being more scientific since the advent of the India Meteorological Department in 1875.Based on more precise data for the period 1971 to 2000, statistical projections have been madeon the probable intensities of tropical cyclones for various return periods. The super cyclone ofOctober 29, 1999 (SC1999) appears to have a return period of about 50 years. The cyclones of1831, 1885 and possibly the one in 1895 could have been super cyclones. During the 19th century,there were 72 flooding events associated with cyclones, whereas in the 20th century therewere only 56 events. There was no observational evidence to suggest that there was an increaseeither in the frequency or intensity of cyclones or storm surges on the coast of Orissa. However,the impact of cyclones and surges is on the increase due to increase of population and coastalinfrastructure.     

Population distribution and standard of living in Iceland

The Vikings and other settlers of Iceland immigrated during the 10th century not only for political reasons but also because they were seeking more spacious lands and thus a better standard of living. They found what they were searching for, and they and their descendants for some hundreds of years did live a relatively prosperous life. Eventually in the 15th century they suffered a series of setbacks. Poor living conditions were nothing unusual for the Icelanders in late medieval Europe, but this coupled with both the cool climate and the lack of timber for housing and heating, and for boat and shipbuilding made their lot an especially hard one. The 18th century was the darkest one in Icelandic history, and those acquainted with the problems doubted that the little nation could survive. But then, beginning in the 19th century and rapidly increasing in the 20th century, the urban evolution came about and brought with it a measure of progress. As a result, most Icelanders now live in towns, with over fifty percent living in Reykjavik and its environs. The effects of rural migration is one problem that persists in spite of the fact that the average income is now similar in most areas.     

Spatial and temporal changes in the relationship between church and state in Hungary

Hungary is located in the Carpatho–Pannonian area and has been the interface at which European Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy and Judaism have met and mixed for nearly 500 years. The Hungarian state was founded in the 10th and 11th centuries with Catholic support. This was well before the emergence of the modern Hungarian nation in the 18th and 19th centuries on the basis of a mix with Protestantism. During the latter period, Hungarians were followers of several confessions. In spite of this, the Catholic Church generally managed to retain its politically dominant position until 1946, and the elimination of kingdom. In 1949, the Hungarian state and the churches were officially separated. This was followed by an era of atheist, anticlerical policy by the communist totalitarian regime until 1989. Since then state–church relations have largely conformed to European norms and were based on a division of tasks and cooperation. Churches in Hungary played an important role in maintaining civil society and ideas of national consciousness during the totalitarian communist regime. That is why religious conviction and ecclesiastic affairs have a broader political context here than in the west. In the second half of the 20th century, secularisation accelerated by state support was curbed and reversed due to a religious revival, which took place mainly in rural areas following the change in political regime. The scale of religious pluralism was related to the arrival of people who belonged to non-traditional confessions.     

A high Late Holocene tree-limit and the establishment of the spruce forest-limit – a case study in northern Sweden

Radiocarbon dates of subfossil pines found on dry ground above the present-day tree-limit are reported from northern Sweden. The uppermost and oldest specimen germinated c. AD 300–600. During some shorter part of this interval the tree-limit might have been 235 m higher than it was at the turn of the last century. Based on a current adiabatic lapse rate of 0.7°C per 100m, it may be tentatively deduced that the summers were at least 1.6°C warmer. The pine tree-limit and upper pine populations are inferred to have declined substantially shortly after AD 600. The tree-limit reached a low at the end of the Little Ice Age. In parallel with the warming of c. 1°C during the first half of the 20th century the tree-limit advanced 110m altitudinally. Spruce forest dominance seems to have increased at the study site during the first half of the 19th century, when thermal and hygric conditions may have been optimally balanced. Although basically a direct climatic response, it can be hypothesized that the spruce expansion was facilitated by the pine demise during the Little Ice Age.     

Large earthquakes and the abandonment of prehistoric coastal settlements in 15th century New Zealand

This paper reports on the effects of large earthquakes and related events, such as tsunamis, on prehistoric coastal settlements in New Zealand. It is based on field observations at several well‐established archaeological sites around the Cook Strait region and on literature reviews. We identify three broad periods of seismic activity in New Zealand since human occupation of the islands: 13th century, 15th century, and the 1750s to 1850s. The most significant, from a prehistoric human perspective, is the 15th century. Using examples from the Cook Strait region, we suggest that the abandonment of coastal settlements, the movement of people from the coast to inland areas, and a shift in settlement location from sheltered coastal bays to exposed headlands, was due to seismic activity, including tsunamis. We expect similar patterns to have occurred in other parts of New Zealand, and other coastal areas of the world with longer occupation histories. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Spatial development,density gradients and their planning implications: The Rome case

Like urban space population density patterns are constantly changing. While Newling observed four stages of density gradients from youthful through mature and old stages of a city, this study shows that Rome was not a youthful city at the end of the 19th century yet Newling's youthful stage density gradients were prevalent at that time. In the 20th century, like Newling's later stages Rome also showed depopulation of the center leading to a crater-like density gradient. City planning policies were only partially responsible for patterning the density over the century. Though Newling's model is not applicable in the 19th century Rome, it is largely valid when automobiles were introduced.     

Reconstructing past climatic anomalies in the North Pacific and western North America from tree-ring data

Winter climatic anomalies in the North Pacific sector and western North America are statistically calibrated with tree-ring data in western North America and reconstructed back to AD 1700. The results are verified using climatic data from the last half of the 19th century, which is prior to the calibration period. Climatic conditions reconstructed for 18th and 19th century winters are then summarized and compared with the 20th century record.     

The spa Deutsch-Altenburg and the hydrogeology of the Vienna basin (Austria)

 Some years ago the thermal water wells of the spa Deutsch-Altenburg were considered the result of a local water circulation. Extensive measurements of the water chemistry, trace elements, and environmental isotopes combined with drillings in the river bed of the Danube resulted in the indication of a key position of the mineral thermal wells of Deutsch-Altenburg for the groundwater circulation in the entire Vienna basin. The proof of this fact demanded the inclusion of the complicated geological position of the basin into the argumentation. The historical background of Bad Deutsch-Altenburg is the Roman municipium Carnuntum. During the reign of the Roman emperor Marc Aurel (161-180 A.C.) Carnuntum became the largest Roman municipium northeast of Rome with about 50 000 inhabitants covering the areas of present-day villages Petronell and Deutsch-Altenburg due to its strategic and trade position. The town was totally destroyed during the era of "migration of nations." The land surface was farmland or meadows. The first document concerning the thermal water of Deutsch-Altenburg is an expertise of the medical faculty of the University of Vienna (1548). During the siege of Vienna by the Turkish army under Kara Mustafa (1683–84) Deutsch-Altenburg was again, destroyed. It was only at the end of the 19th century that the modern installation of the spa began. The healing thermal water with the highest content of sulfur in Austria made Deutsch-Altenburg one of the most well-known spas in the country. The archaeological excavation of Carnuntum is the largest in Austria. Received: 6 October 1995 · Accepted: 13 November 1995     

15～19世纪中国与欧洲制盐技术的发展

１５～１９世纪中国与欧洲均以柴草和煤炭为燃料，经提升、运输等程序把海水、地下卤水运至熬盐场进行熬盐。欧洲使用木管输卤，用方型铁锅或铅锅熬制，而中国则用竹管输卤，以圆型铁锅和竹盘熬制，同时中国还采用天然气为熬盐燃料。把海水分段（池）日晒蒸发制卤、结晶制盐的工艺，欧洲始于中世纪末，中国则形成于唐（盐池卤水），完善于明，并逐渐向沿海扩展。中国于１８３５年凿成世界上第一口深逾千米的盐井；欧洲于１６世纪末，在地下１２０ｍ深处用水平巷道开采盐矿。中世纪末，欧洲用采矿法和水溶法开采地下盐，１７９２年从５０ｍ深的井下用蒸气机代替马匹汲取卤水。     

Variations in climate since 1602 as reconstructed from tree rings

Spatial anomalies of tree-ring chronologies can provide information on high-frequency spatial anomalies in paleoclimate representing droughts, colder-than-normal intervals, and other synoptic-scale features. Examples are presented in which 65 tree-ring chronologies are calibrated with spatial anomalies in North American meteorological records of seasonal temperature and precipitation, and with sea-level pressure over the North American and North Pacific sectors. Multivariate transfer functions are obtained that scale and convert the past spatial variations in the tree-ring record into estimates of past variations in the meteorological record. Objective verifications of the reconstructions are obtained using independent meteorological observations for time periods other than those used in the calibration. Historical information or other proxy data from the 19th century are also used for verifying the decadal (or longer) and regional reconstructions and for identifying strengths and weaknesses of the various sources of information. The reconstructed winter and summer temperatures for the United States and southwestern Canada and winter precipitation for the Columbia Basin and California during the 17th through 19th centuries were found to differ from the 20th century means with large-scale variations evident. Extreme winters similar to 1976–1977 are also identified and found to be more frequent in the past, especially in the 17th century. The climatic reconstructions in this time domain are dominated by high-frequency, synoptic-scale fluctuations that can be interpreted as cyclonic-scale changes in atmospheric circulation. Such reconstructions may be useful for testing various climatic models and estimates developed primarily from 20th-century meteorological data against the longer estimated record for the 17th through 19th centuries.     

索伦霍芬石灰岩中的翼龙：新发现和改变采掘行为的影响

The first discoveries of pterosaur fossils were made at the end of the 18th century and during the first decades of the 19th century in Bavaria, southern Germany. They originate from limestone quarries in the vicinity of the village of Solnhofen and adjacent hamlets as well as from limestone pits close to the town of Eichst?tt.     

Cyclicity of late Holocene seismicity in the Alpine-Himalayan belt

It has been shown for particular seismic zones and the Alpine-Himalayan Orogenic Belt as a whole that in addition to Fedotov cycles, the long-period hypercycles of seismicity are distinguished. Long-period variations were revealed in Syria, in southern and central segments of the El-Ghab Fault Zone of the Dead Sea Transform (EG DST), and at the southwestern end of the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ). The EG DST demonstrates a ～1800-year hypercycle with a maximum in the 3rd-7th and the 19th-20th centuries A.D. To reveal variations in seismicity in the entire central part of the orogenic belt, we have corrected evidence for historical earthquakes, taking into account the probability of missing events and the area of their regular recording domains. As a result, we displayed maximums of seismic energy release from the mid-17th to mid-20th century A.D.; from the mid-4th to the end of the 6th century; and in the 15th-13th centuries B.C. When interpreting hypercycles, it is important to keep in mind that variation of seismicity in EG DST correlates with variation of the rate of elastic deformation accumulation, probably reflecting variability of the stress-and-strain state in the region and of velocity of tectonic movements in active domains. After additional investigations, hypercycles could be taken into account for to refine the seismic hazard estimate.     

Radiocarbon chronology of Holocene glacial and climatic events in southeastern Altai (Central Asia)

The geomorphological studies and radiocarbon dating of moraine complexes and the tree line within the North Chuya Ridge, along with active slope processes, soil formation, and peat formation in southeastern Gorny Altai, constrain the age of the main glacial and climatic events in this area at 7 ka to the first half of the 19th century. It is for the first time in the history of Altai studies that 57 absolute dates were obtained for glaciation in a vast but climatically and neotectonically homogeneous area. The new data refute the conventional idea that the Holocene glaciation in this mountain land comprised eight stages of the gradual retreat of the Late Würm (Sartan) glaciation. Also, they evidence that glaciation in the upper parts of the troughs retreated almost completely no later than 7 ka and valley glaciers in southeastern Altai were activated many times in the second half of the Holocene. Data are given on the morphology and age of three moraine generations reflected in the topography. A combination of temperature minima and humidity maxima led to a catastrophically rapid and the largest (up to 5–6 km) ice advance at the Akkem Stage (4.9–4.2 ka). In addition to the radiocarbon data, the time limits of the Historical stage (2.3–1.7 ka) were defined more precisely using dendrochronological and archaeological data from Scythian burials of Pazyryk culture in SE Altai. The moraines closest to the present-day glaciers formed at the Aktru Stage (late 13th–middle 19th century). During warm interglacials, the glaciers waned considerably or retreated completely and the zone of recent glaciation was reforested. As a result of progressive aridization in the Holocene, the glaciers in southeastern Altai waned at each successive stage, and their mass balance was not positive during the greatest temperature minimum of the last millennium (middle 19th century).