Detection and 2d modelling of cavities using pole–dipole array

The resistivity method is often used in cave prospecting. In this paper the pole–dipole array ability to detect cavities at different depths and with different water contents is investigated. The research was performed using analogical and numerical modelling. According to the results, empty caves at a depth less than four times its diameter can be easily detected. The ability of the pole–dipole array to detect water-filled caves reaches a minimum at filling percentages of 30–50%. Overburden effects research shows that low resistivity overburden reduces the resolution capability of the array. This study shows that equivalent results can be obtained by modelling the empty caves as infinite resistivity bodies or, alternatively, as very high resistivity ones. The analysis of field data acquired in the Maciço Calcário Estremenho (Portugal) shows the practical importance of the pole–dipole array in cavities prospecting.     

Linear regression models for estimating true subsurface resistivity from apparent resistivity data

Simple linear regression (SLR) models for rapid estimation of true subsurface resistivity from apparent resistivity measurements are developed and assessed in this study. The objective is to minimize the processing time and computer memory required to carry out inversion with conventional algorithms. The arrays considered are Wenner, Wenner–Schlumberger and dipole–dipole. The parameters investigated are apparent resistivity (\(\rho _a \)) and true resistivity (\(\rho _t\)) as independent and dependent variables, respectively. For the fact that subsurface resistivity is nonlinear, the datasets were first transformed into logarithmic scale to satisfy the basic regression assumptions. Three models, one each for the three array types, are thus developed based on simple linear relationships between the dependent and independent variables. The generated SLR coefficients were used to estimate \(\rho _t\) for different \(\rho _a\) datasets for validation. Accuracy of the models was assessed using coefficient of determination (\(R^{2})\), F-test, standard error (SE) and weighted mean absolute percentage error (wMAPE). The model calibration \(R^{2}\) and F-value are obtained as 0.75 and 2286, 0.63 and 1097, and 0.47 and 446 for the Wenner, Wenner–Schlumberger and dipole–dipole array models, respectively. The SE for calibration and validation are obtained as 0.12 and 0.13, 0.16 and 0.25, and 0.21 and 0.24 for the Wenner, Wenner–Schlumberger and dipole–dipole array models, respectively. Similarly, the wMAPE for calibration and validation are estimated as 3.27 and 3.49%, 3.88 and 5.72%, and 5.35 and 6.07% for the three array models, respectively. When compared with standard constraint least-squares (SCLS) inversion and Incomplete Gauss–Newton (IGN) algorithms, the SLR models were found to reduce about 80–96.5% of the processing time and memory space required to carry out the inversion with the SCLS algorithm. It is concluded that the SLR models can rapidly estimate \(\rho _t\) for the various arrays accurately.     

Model tank electrical resistivity characterization of LNAPL migration in a clayey-sand formation

A modeling tank time-lapse 2D electrical resistivity experiment was undertaken to model the leakage of petroleum products from underground pipelines into a clayey-sand aquifer. Numerical modeling was employed to simulate the electrode arrays that would resolve the post-leakage subsurface image most efficiently. Of the four arrays tested, the dipole–dipole array proved most effective and was adopted for the laboratory studies. Pre-injection surveys were conducted to assist in discriminating between features caused by hydrocarbon accumulation and those due to natural geologic variability. Subsequently, controlled injection of diesel–oil into the model tank was undertaken at regular intervals over a period of 3 days. Experimental evidence obtained from the studies indicates that high resistivity build up few hours after injection is directly related to hydrocarbon accumulation. Rather than biodegradation of the hydrocarbon, a more probable explanation for the observed decrease in resistivity observed a few hours after injection is simply that the hydrocarbons drained to a deeper level after pooling temporarily at a shallow level.     

Surface geophysical investigations of landslide at the Wiri area in southeastern Korea

A geophysical survey was undertaken at Wiri area of the Andong in southeastern Korea to delineate subsurface structure and to detect the fault zone, which affected the 1997 mountain–hill subsidence and subsequent road heaving initiated by the intense rainfall. Electrical resistivity methods of dipole–dipole array profiling and Schlumberger array sounding and seismic methods of refraction and reflection profiling were used to map a clay zone, which was regarded as the major factor for the landslide. The clay zone was identified in electrical resistivity and seismic sections as having low electrical resistivity (<100 Ωm) and low seismic velocity (<400 m/s), respectively. The clay zone detected by using geophysical methods is well correlated with its distribution from the trench and drill-core data. The results of the electrical and seismic surveys showed that slope subsidence was associated with the sliding of saturated clay along a fault plane trending NNW–SSE and dipping 10°–20° SW. However, the road heaving was caused by the slope movement of the saturated clay along a sub-vertical NNE-trending fault.     

A numerical comparison of enhancing horizontal resolution (EHR) technique utilizing 2D resistivity imaging

The effectiveness of inversion apparent resistivity data to determine accurately the true resistivity distribution over 2D structures has been investigated using a common inversion scheme based on smoothness-constrained nonlinear least-squares optimization with enhancing horizontal resolution (EHR) technique by numerical simulation. The theoretical model generates in RES2DMOD software at specific distance and depth using Wenner, Wenner–Schlumberger, and pole–dipole arrays were inverted. The inversion model was compared with the original 2D model in RES2DINV software. The study model includes horizontal layering, vertical resolution, and horizontal two layers with different resistivity. Also, the response to variations in data density of these arrays was investigated. The study shows the best array suitable to be used in the survey was chosen for real data acquisition at the actual site. Subsequently, the results from borehole were used to verify the results of 2D resistivity imaging method with and without EHR technique. Saturated zone (0–40 Ω-m) was found scattered at the depth of 10–20 m. The borehole is located at 63 m at 2D resistivity imaging survey which shows at depth 10–20 m is sandy silt. Highly weathered sandstone was found at 6 m depth with resistivity value of 800 Ω-m and SPT N value of 20. The bedrock was found at 27 m depth with resistivity value of 3,000 Ω-m and SPT N value of 50. The application of 2D resistivity imaging with EHR technique indicate the ability of the proposed approach in terms of density, depth, and resistivity value of anomalous and layer in a computationally and numerically efficient manner and to exhibit good performance in the data inversion.     

Normalized impedance function and the straightforward inversion scheme for magnetotelluric data

This paper investigates the performance of normalized response function obtained by normalizing the Cagniard impedance function by a suitable factor and then rotating the phase by 45‡ to make it purely real for homogeneous half-space and equal to the square root of the half-space resistivity. Two apparent resistivity functions based on respectively the real and imaginary parts of this response function are proposed. The apparent resistivity function using the real part contains almost the same information as that yielded by the Cagniard expression while the one using the imaginary part qualitatively works as an indicator of the number of interfaces in the earth model. The linear straightforward inversion scheme (SIS), developed by the authors employing the concept of equal penetration layers, has been used to validate the proposed apparent resistivity functions. For this purpose, several synthetic and field models have been examined. Five synthetic models are studied to establish the veracity of the new functions and two well-studied published field data sets are inverted through SIS for comparison. We noticed that the new function and SIS compliment each other and lead to better understanding of the data information and model resolution.     

利用高密度电阻率法监测地下介质污染问题的数值模拟

对地下介质不同污染模式的电性分布特征,给出了不同的地电模型。针对不同的地电模型,利用2.5维有限元正演模拟的方法计算出了不同监测装置形式下的异常分布特征,并给出了针对不同污染模式的最优监测装置形式和异常分析方法。同时模拟分析了对于不同污染程度监测的可行性。      

含油污水污染地下介质的电性异常模拟及实例分析

为了提高电阻率法对地下介质污染问题的探测能力,分析了含油污水污染地下介质后引起的导电性变化,建立了适用于该问题分析的地电模型。利用2.5维有限元的方法正演模拟了采用温纳、施龙贝格、偶极和二极装置监测时所得的典型电异常剖面。正演模拟结果显示不同装置对污染区的反映能力不同,相对而言施龙贝格和温纳装置对污染区分布的反映较为直观。饱和粘土的含油污染区用温纳装置测量,剖面上表现为相对高阻异常特征,异常区域分布和污染通道相吻合。应用实例也证实了这一分析。     

水平电偶源r方向电场值应用的理论研究

根据准静态极限条件下,水平电偶极源在均匀半空间表面产生的r方向电场分量E r表达式,分别在一维和三维条件下,对E r进行数值模拟并迭代计算出相应视电阻率,讨论E r的观测范围和应用优势。在一维条件下,通过对四种典型层状模型(两层D、G,三层H、K)的数值计算,并与相同条件下的E x视电阻率进行对比,结果表明:E r比E x受测量方位的影响更小;在三维条件下,选取均匀半空间存在异常体的模型,采用积分方程法对E r进行数值计算,与相同条件下的E x视电阻率进行对比,结果表明:当均匀半空间存在低阻异常体时,E r对低阻体y方向边界的反应比E x效果较好。     

Application of 2D and 3D geoelectrical resistivity imaging for engineering site investigation in a crystalline basement terrain,southwestern Nigeria

Orthogonal set of 2D geoelectrical resistivity field data, consisting of six parallel and five perpendicular profiles, were collected in an investigation site using the conventional Wenner array. Seven Schlumberger soundings were also conducted on the site to provide ID layering information and supplement the orthogonal 2D profiles. The observed 2D apparent resistivity data were first processed individually and then collated into 3D data set which was processed using a 3D inversion code. The 3D model resistivity images obtained from the inversion are presented as horizontal depth slices. Some distortions observed in the 2D images from the inversion of the 2D profiles are not observed in the 2D images extracted from the 3D inversion. The survey was conducted with the aim of investigating the degree of weathering and fracturing in the weathered profile, and thereby ascertaining the suitability of the site for engineering constructions as well as determining its groundwater potential.     

测量磁场水平分量H y的电性源广域电磁测深法

基于层状大地表面水平电偶极源电磁场公式系统,提出了比值法获取H y分量全区视电阻率计算公式。计算了层状地电模型多个收发距的电磁场各场分量E x、H y、H z,并用这三个场分量计算了全区视电阻率,以及E x/H y卡尼亚电阻率,并与模型的MT卡尼亚电阻率频谱曲线进行对比。发现H y全区视电阻率在赤道装置和轴向装置的广大区域对地电模型均有较好的响应,可进行单分量广域电磁测深。轴向装置H y全区视电阻率与赤道装置垂直磁场H z全区视电阻率相似,在低频段与层状模型大地电磁测深卡尼亚电阻率有相似的频率响应特征,在较小收发距条件下对大埋深基底就能有较好的响应。赤道装置和轴向装置测量的水平电场E x分量全区视电阻率在低频区均会进入“饱和”区。对于各电阻率定义方法,合适的收发距是较好地反映出地电特征深度变化的前提,多收发距测量有利于揭示深部电性特征。     

Geophysical imaging of municipal solid waste contaminant pathways

Surface electrical and electromagnetic surveys were conducted on top of a solid waste facility in Unguwan Dosa, Kaduna State, Northwest Nigeria. The aim of the geophysical survey was to detect vertical and subvertical fractures that may provide pathways for groundwater and contaminant transport. Results from the 2D electrical resistivity imaging showed vertical and subvertical contacts overlain by 6–10 m thick overburden. Quantitative interpretation of the VLF-EM data correlates well with the results of the 2D resistivity imaging delineating the vertical and subvertical contacts as good and weak conductors (fractures zones) with resistivity values of 40–220 and 300–420 Ω m, respectively. Azimuthal Schlumberger VES measurements yield apparent anisotropy values ranging from 1.01 to 1.47 for electrode spacings of 1–45 m with the highest value recorded at spacing of 2 m. However, azimuthal variations at large spacings (30–45 m) showed no fracture anisotropy due possibly to the array’s low sensitivity to anisotropy at these spacings. The result of the study showed that pollutants in the leachate can reach and contaminate the groundwater. Therefore, urgency for leachate treatment at this site is recommended to prevent contamination of groundwater.     

Hydrogeological and geophysical study for deeper groundwater resource in quartzitic hard rock ridge region from 2D resistivity data

Electrical resistivity method is a versatile and economical technique for groundwater prospecting in different geological settings due to wide spectrum of resistivity compared to other geophysical parameters. Exploration and exploitation of groundwater, a vital and precious resource, is a challenging task in hard rock, which exhibits inherent heterogeneity. In the present study, two-dimensional Electrical Resistivity Tomography (2D-ERT) technique using two different arrays, viz., pole–dipole and pole–pole, were deployed to look into high signal strength data in a tectonically disturbed hard rock ridge region for groundwater. Four selected sites were investigated. 2D subsurface resistivity tomography data were collected using Syscal Pro Switch-10 channel system and covered a 2 km long profile in a tough terrain. The hydrogeological interpretation based on resistivity models reveal the water horizons trap within the clayey sand and weathered/fractured quartzite formations. Aquifer resistivity lies between ～3–35 and 100–200 Ωm. The results of the resistivity models decipher potential aquifer lying between 40 and 88 m depth, nevertheless, it corroborates with the static water level measurements in the area of study. The advantage of using pole–pole in conjunction with the pole–dipole array is well appreciated and proved worth which gives clear insight of the aquifer extent, variability and their dimension from shallow to deeper strata from the hydrogeological perspective in the present geological context.     

Application of integrated geoelectrical methods in Marand (Iran) manganese deposit exploration

This paper addresses the application of integrated geoelectrical methods including induced polarization (IP), resistivity (RS), and self-potential (SP) for exploration and evaluation of the Marand (Iran) manganese deposit. The SP method was used for reconnaissance, in which five profiles were designed and surveyed with a reference electrode that was placed in a distance of at least 800 m far from the measurement points. For the conduct of RS and IP, a new array proposed by Ramazi (2005a), named combined resistivity profiling and sounding (CRSP) was used along nine profiles that made it possible to do sounding survey and produce apparent resistivity pseudo-sections. Some anomalies were detected by means of SP surveys along the profiles and some other were located from IP and RS pseudo-sections, and there was good consistency between anomalies detected by IP and RS and SP method. To check the efficiency of CRSP and in comparison with dipole–dipole array, in the location of profile no. 6, a profile with the dipole–dipole array was designed and surveyed. Finally, by integration of the results from the geoelectrical methods, some locations were suggested for borehole drilling. After drilling in those locations, cores were studied and compared with the results obtained from the geoelectrical methods that resulted in confirmation of the geoelectrical findings. The results obtained by the CRSP array have a match better than the drilling results.     

Correcting the distortion of apparent resistivity pseudosection produced by 3D effect of the embankment geometry

Two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography data acquired on the crest of the embankment are distorted by the 3D effect of the embankment geometry, reservoir water level and abutment. The distortion affects seriously the final solution of the 2D inverse problem. By comparing the apparent resistivity pseudosections from a 3D and 2D electrical resistivity model of the embankment, the distortion degrees of the apparent resistivity pseudosections along the axis on the crest were estimated for the cases of reservoir and which does not contain water. The obtained results indicate that the distortion degree acquired in the case of a reservoir that contains water was much less than that in the case of the reservoir that does not contain water. In the case of reservoir that contains water, the apparent resistivity pseudosections of the P–P and ED–ED arrays had the largest distortion degree and of D–D, W–S and P–D arrays had the smallest distortion degree. In the case of the reservoir that does not contain water, the apparent resistivity pseudosection of P–P array had the smallest distortion among all arrays. Through modeling investigation, a correction process to reduce the distortion of the apparent resistivity pseudosection was proposed. The correction process was tested in the embankment model, and two field works were carried out in the To Lich River in Hanoi and Khuan Cat embankment in Lang Son province, Vietnam. It is possible to bring the distortion of the apparent resistivity pseudosection down to 2.8–13.9%, depending on the type of electrode arrays and the type of reservoirs, containing or does not contain water. The distortion correction of the apparent resistivity pseudosection is strongly recommended before doing the 2D inverse interpretation.     

软土基坑隔水帷幕渗漏检测技术

隔水帷幕渗漏是影响软土基坑稳定性的关键问题。针对隔水帷幕渗漏检测技术,开展了数值模拟和物理模型试验,深入研究了不同采集装置类型三维电阻率法和探地雷达法对渗漏异常的反映能力及在探测剖面上表现出来的异常特征,给出了判断帷幕是否渗漏和确定渗漏点位置的解释方法。结果表明:温纳装置、偶极装置和温纳-施龙贝格装置都能有效反映渗漏点的存在;降水后帷幕未发生渗漏时,与基坑外侧软土含水层相比,内侧软土层电阻率表现为高阻异常;帷幕渗漏后基坑内侧底部软土层电阻率降低,外侧电阻率升高,并呈现漏斗状异常,两侧低阻异常与帷幕的交叉点可正确指示渗漏点位置;帷幕发生渗漏后,基于基坑外侧的探地雷达探测剖面中会出现双曲型反射波同相轴,通过其顶点可确定渗漏点的位置。研究结果证实了两种地球物理手段开展软土基坑隔水帷幕渗漏检测的可行性。     

CSAMT电场y方向视电阻率的定义及研究

在准静态近似条件下,利用水平电偶源在均匀半空间表面激发电磁场的计算公式,讨论了可控源音频大地电磁法（CSAMT）水平电场y分量E_y的观测范围、特点和由其定义视电阻率的应用优势;E_y与常规标量CSAMT测量的E_x、H_y幅值范围不同,采集并利用E_y数据可以扩大CSAMT野外观测扇区,减少采集成本。依据电法及电磁法勘探中视电阻率定义的基本原则,提出了E_y视电阻率的定义,说明了其具备频率测深的意义;通过几种典型层状模型（均匀半空间,两层D、G,三层H、K以及四层KH、HK型）的数值计算,对比了E_y视电阻率和E_x、H_y、Z_xy、Re(Z_xy)等对应的波区视电阻率及E_x、Z_xy等对应的全区视电阻率对地电断面电性特征的反映效果。结果表明：E_y视电阻率的求取仅需测点的坐标和一个方向的电场值,计算方便、不必迭代,并且在曲线低频端收敛于一稳定值,可以明显改善非波区的畸变效应。     

高密度电阻率法在基岩勘察中的应用

从三电位电极系基本理论出发,对高密度电阻率法常用温纳、偶极及微分装置的分辨率、信号强度等进行了比较研究。实例分析表明,温纳装置测量获得的数据纵向分辨率较高,采集信号的强度大,信噪比高,采用该装置探测基岩面的起伏状况效果明显;偶极装置采集的数据横向分辨率较高,在探测基岩内部构造方面有较好的灵敏度,但该装置采集的信号强度小,抗干扰能力差。在实际应用时,建议运用多种装置形式进行综合测量和对比解释,以进一步提高勘探效果和精度。      

Delineation of shallow resistivity structure in the city of Burdur,SW Turkey by vertical electrical sounding measurements

The city of Burdur, which is built on an alluvium aquifer, is located in one of the most seismically active zones in southwestern Turkey. The soil properties in the study site are characterized by unconsolidated and water-saturated sediments including silty, clayey and sandy units, and shallow groundwater level is the other characteristic of the site. Thus, the city is under soil liquefaction risk during a large earthquake. A resistivity survey including 189 vertical electrical sounding (VES) measurements was carried out in 2000 as part of a multi-disciplinary project aiming to investigate settlement properties in Burdur city and its vicinity. In the present study, the VES data acquired by using a Schlumberger array were re-processed with 1D and 2D inversion techniques to determine liquefaction potential in the study site. The results of some 1D interpretations were compared to the data from several wells drilled during the project. Also, the groundwater level map that was previously obtained by hydrological studies was extended toward north by using the resistivity data. 2D least-squares inversions were performed along nine VES profiles. This provided very useful information on vertical and horizontal extends of geologic units and water content in the subsurface. The study area is characterized by low resistivity distribution (<150 Ωm) originating from high fluid content in the subsurface. Lower resistivity (3–30 Ωm) is associated with the Quaternary and the Tertiary lacustrine sediments while relatively high resistivity (40–150 Ωm) is related to the Quaternary alluvial cone deposits. This study has also shown that the resistivity measurements are useful in the estimation of liquefaction risk in a site by providing information on the groundwater level and the fluid content in the subsurface. Based on this, we obtained a liquefaction hazard map for the study area. The liquefaction potential was classified by considering the resistivity distributions from 2D inversion of the VES profiles, the types of the sediments and the extended groundwater level map. According to this map, the study area was characterized by high liquefaction hazard risk.     

An integrated geophysical study of arsenic contaminated area in the peninsular Thailand

Geophysical surveys were carried out in an arsenic contaminated area, in the Ron Phibun District in southern Thailand. Here, tin and associated minerals, i.e. arsenopyrite and pyrite, have been extracted from granites and natural processes and the mining activities led to arsenic contamination in the environment. Electrical resistivity and self-potential (SP) were used to define the distribution of arsenic contamination in the groundwater. Resistivities of 25–100 Ωm and a positive SP anomaly of 66.0 mV were observed in an area where the arsenic content in auger water at 3.5–5.0 m depths was high, 0.5–5.0 mg/l. Integrated interpretation of resistivity, seismic refraction, GPR and gravity data gave a clear image of subsurface shallow structures (< 30 m depths). There was a good correlation between the resistivity and the gravity data. A subsurface rise was found, which possibly acts as a naturally buried dam, separating a high-contaminated area from a low contaminated area.