Field Test of Enhanced Remedial Amendment Delivery Using a Shear‐Thinning Fluid

Heterogeneity of hydraulic properties in aquifers may lead to contaminants residing in lower‐permeability zones where it is difficult to deliver remediation amendments using conventional injection processes. The focus of this study is to examine use of a shear‐thinning fluid (STF) to improve the uniformity of remedial amendment distribution within a heterogeneous aquifer. Previous studies have demonstrated the significant potential of STFs for improving remedial amendment delivery in heterogeneous aquifers, but quantitative evaluation of these improvements from field applications is lacking. A field‐scale test was conducted that compares data from successive injection of a tracer in water followed by injection of a tracer in an STF to evaluate the impact of the STF on tracer distribution uniformity in the presence of permeability contrasts within the targeted injection zone. Data from tracer breakthrough at multiple depth‐discrete monitoring intervals and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) showed that inclusion of STF in the injection solution improved the distribution of the injected fluid within the targeted treatment zone. One improvement was a reduction in the movement of injected fluids through high‐permeability pathways, as evidenced by slower breakthrough of tracer at monitoring locations where breakthrough in baseline tracer‐only injection data was faster. In addition, STF‐amended injection solutions arrived faster and to a greater extent in monitoring locations within low‐permeability zones. ERT data showed that the STF injection covered a higher percentage of a two‐dimensional cross section within the injection interval between the injection well and a monitoring well about 3 m away.     

Compound‐Specific Isotope Analyses to Assess TCE Biodegradation in a Fractured Dolomitic Aquifer

The potential for trichloroethene (TCE) biodegradation in a fractured dolomite aquifer at a former chemical disposal site in Smithville, Ontario, Canada, is assessed using chemical analysis and TCE and cis‐DCE compound‐specific isotope analysis of carbon and chlorine collected over a 16‐month period. Groundwater redox conditions change from suboxic to much more reducing environments within and around the plume, indicating that oxidation of organic contaminants and degradation products is occurring at the study site. TCE and cis‐DCE were observed in 13 of 14 wells sampled. VC, ethene, and/or ethane were also observed in ten wells, indicating that partial/full dechlorination has occurred. Chlorine isotopic values (δ³⁷Cl) range between 1.39 to 4.69‰ SMOC for TCE, and 3.57 to 13.86‰ SMOC for cis‐DCE. Carbon isotopic values range between ?28.9 and ?20.7‰ VPDB for TCE, and ?26.5 and ?11.8‰ VPDB for cis‐DCE. In most wells, isotopic values remained steady over the 15‐month study. Isotopic enrichment from TCE to cis‐DCE varied between 0 and 13‰ for carbon and 1 and 4‰ for chlorine. Calculated chlorine‐carbon isotopic enrichment ratios (?_Cl/?_C) were 0.18 for TCE and 0.69 for cis‐DCE. Combined, isotopic and chemical data indicate very little dechlorination is occurring near the source zone, but suggest bacterially mediated degradation is occurring closer to the edges of the plume.     

Carbon Isotope Analysis to Evaluate Nanoscale Fe(O) Treatment at a Chlorohydrocarbon Contaminated Site

Remediation of groundwater contaminated by chlorinated hydrocarbons via in situ technologies such as direct injection of nanoscale zero valent iron (ZVI, Fe(O)) particles is increasingly common. However, assessing target compound degradation by abiotic processes is difficult because (1) the injection may displace the contaminant plume so that concentration measurements alone are often inconclusive and (2) biodegradation may also occur, making it challenging to identify and evaluate the abiotic degradation component. In this study, trichloroethylene (TCE) and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA) were treated in a highly heterogeneous hydrogeologic setting. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential for compound-specific stable isotope analysis (CSIA) to monitor the effectiveness of ZVI injection by assessing TCE and 1,1,1-TCA degradation. Prior to ZVI injection, carbon isotope measurements demonstrated biodegradation of TCE by native microorganisms. This in situ biodegradation was quantified by measuring the enrichment of ¹³C in TCE samples downstream of the suspected source. When ZVI was injected through only two injection wells, no changes in TCE and 1,1,1-TCA isotope signatures were detected compared to preinjection values. In contrast, when ZVI was injected through 11 wells covering a greater portion of the contaminated area, 5 out of 10 monitoring wells showed further enrichment of ¹³C in either TCE or 1,1,1-TCA, indicating additional target compound transformation. The abiotic nature of this TCE transformation was confirmed through temporal trends in carbon isotope values of the putative transformation products cis-dichloroethylene (cis-DCE), ethene and ethane. This demonstrates the usefulness of CSIA in distinguishing abiotic vs. biotic transformation in the field.     

Travel-time based model of bioremediation using circulation wells

Vertical circulation wells can efficiently provide microorganisms with substrates needed for enhanced bioremediation. We present a travel-time based approach for modeling bioreactive transport in a flow field caused by a series of circulation wells. Mixing within the aquifer is due to the differences in sorption behavior of the reactants. Neglecting local dispersion, transport simplifies to a single one-dimensional problem with constant coefficients for each well. Recirculation is characterized by the discharge densities over travel time. We apply the model to the stimulation of cometabolic dechlorination of trichloroethene (TCE) by alternate injection of oxygen and toluene into the circulation wells. Mixing within the wells can be minimized by interposing sufficiently long breaks between the oxygen and toluene pulses. In our simulation, the proposed injection scheme stimulates biomass growth without risking biofouling of the aquifer.     

A Tracer Test to Characterize Treatment of TCE in a Permeable Reactive Barrier

A tracer test was conducted to characterize the flow of groundwater across a permeable reactive barrier constructed with plant mulch (a biowall) at the OU‐1 site on Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma. This biowall is intended to intercept and treat groundwater contaminated by trichloroethylene (TCE) in a shallow aquifer. The biowall is 139‐m long, 7.3‐m deep, and 0.5‐m wide. Bromide was injected from an upgradient well into the groundwater as a conservative tracer, and was subsequently observed breaking through in monitoring wells within and downgradient of the biowall. The bromide breakthrough data demonstrate that groundwater entering the biowall migrated across it, following the slope of the local groundwater surface. The average seepage velocity of groundwater was approximately 0.06 m/d. On the basis of the Darcy velocity of groundwater and geometry of the biowall, the average residence time of groundwater in the biowall was estimated at 10 d. Assuming all TCE removal occurred in the biowall, the reduction in TCE concentrations in groundwater across the biowall corresponds to a first‐order attenuation rate constant in the range of 0.38 to 0.15 per d. As an independent estimate of the degradation rate constant, STANMOD software was used to fit curves through data on the breakthrough of bromide and TCE in selected wells downgradient of the injection wells. Best fits to the data required a first‐order degradation rate constant for TCE removal in the range of 0.13 to 0.17 per d. The approach used in this study provides an objective evaluation of the remedial performance of the biowall that can provide a basis for design of other biowalls that are intended to remediate TCE‐contaminated groundwater.     

Electrical Resistivity Imaging of a Permanganate Injection During In Situ Treatment of RDX‐Contaminated Groundwater

Groundwater beneath the former Nebraska Ordnance Plant (NOP) is contaminated with the explosive hexahydro‐1,3,5‐trinitro‐1,3,5‐triazine (RDX) and trichloroethene (TCE). Previous treatability experiments confirmed that permanganate could mineralize RDX in NOP aquifer material. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of permanganate to transform RDX in the field by monitoring a pilot‐scale in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) demonstration. In this demonstration, electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) was used to create two‐dimensional (2‐D) images of the test site prior to, during, and after injecting sodium permanganate. The ISCO was performed by using an extraction‐injection well configuration to create a curtain of permanganate. Monitoring wells were positioned downgradient of the injection zone with the intent of capturing the permanganate‐RDX plume. Differencing between ERI taken preinjection and postinjection determined the initial distribution of the injected permanganate. ERI also quantitatively corroborated the hydraulic conductivity distribution across the site. Groundwater samples from 12 downgradient wells and 8 direct‐push profiles did not provide enough data to quantify the distribution and flow of the injected permanganate. ERI, however, showed that the permanganate injection flowed against the regional groundwater gradient and migrated below monitoring well screens. ERI combined with monitoring well samples helped explain the permanganate dynamics in downgradient wells and support the use of ERI as a means of monitoring ISCO injections.     

Long‐Term Impacts on Groundwater and Reductive Dechlorination Following Bioremediation in a Highly Characterized Trichloroethene DNAPL Source Area

High‐resolution soil and groundwater monitoring was performed to assess the long‐term impacts of bioremediation using bioaugmentation with a dechlorinating microbial consortium (and sodium lactate as the electron donor) in a well‐characterized trichloroethene (TCE) dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) source area. Monitoring was performed up to 3.7 years following active bioremediation using a high‐density monitoring network that included several discrete interval multi‐level sampling wells. Results showed that despite the absence of lactate, lactate fermentation transformation products, or hydrogen, biogeochemical conditions remained favorable for the reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes. In locations where soil data showed that TCE DNAPL sources persisted, local contaminant rebound was observed in groundwater, whereas no rebound or continuous decreases in chlorinated ethenes were observed in locations where DNAPL sources were treated. While ethene levels measured 3.7 years after active treatment suggested relatively low (2 to 30%) dechlorination of the parent TCE and daughter products, carbon stable isotope analysis showed that the extent of complete dechlorination was much greater than indicated by ethene generation and that the estimated first‐order rate constant describing the complete dechlorination of TCE at 3.7 years following active bioremediation was approximately 3.6 y–1. Overall, results of this study suggest that biological processes may persist to treat TCE for years after cessation of active bioremediation, thereby serving as an important component of remedial treatment design and long‐term attenuation.     

Numerical Analysis of Thermal Remediation in 3D Field‐Scale Fractured Geologic Media

Thermal methods are promising for remediating fractured geologic media contaminated with volatile organic compounds, and the success of this process depends on the coupled heat transfer, multiphase flow, and thermodynamics. This study analyzed field‐scale removal of trichloroethylene (TCE) and heat transfer behavior in boiling fractured geologic media using the multiple interacting continua method. This method can resolve local gradients in the matrix and is less computationally demanding than alternative methods like discrete fracture‐matrix models. A 2D axisymmetric model was used to simulate a single element of symmetry in a repeated pattern of extraction wells inside a large heated zone and evaluate effects of parameter sensitivity on contaminant recovery. The results showed that the removal of TCE increased with matrix permeability, and the removal rate was more sensitive to matrix permeability than any other parameter. Increasing fracture density promoted TCE removal, especially when the matrix permeability was low (e.g., <10^?17 m²). A 3D model was used to simulate an entire treatment zone and the surrounding groundwater in fractured material, with the interaction between them being considered. Boiling was initiated in the center of the upper part of the heated region and expanded toward the boundaries. This boiling process resulted in a large increase in the TCE removal rate and spread of TCE to the vadose zone and the peripheries of the heated zone. The incorporation of extraction wells helped control the contaminant from migrating to far regions. After 22 d, more than 99.3% of TCE mass was recovered in the simulation.     

Subsurface Injection of Treated Sewage into a Saline-Water Aquifer at St. Petersburg, Florida —Aquifer Pressure Buildup

The city of St. Petersburg has been testing subsurface injection of treated sewage into the Floridan aquifer as a means of eliminating discharge of sewage to surface waters and as a means of storing treated sewage for future non-potable reuse. The injection zone originally contained native saline ground water that was similar in composition to sea water. The zone has a transmissivity of about 1.2 X 10⁶ feet squared per day (ft2/d) and is within the lower part of the Floridan aquifer. Treated sewage that had a mean chloride concentration of 170 milligrams per liter (mg/1) was injected through a single well for 12 months at a mean rate of 4.7 X 105 cubic feet per day (ft3/d). The volume of water injected during the year was 1.7 X 10⁸ cubic feet. Pressure buildup at the end of one year ranged from less than 0.1 to as much as 2.4 pounds per square inch (lb/in2) in observation wells at the site. Pressure buildup in wells open to the upper part of the injection zone was related to buoyant lift acting on the mixed water in the injection zone in addition to subsurface injection through the injection well. Calculations of the vertical component of pore velocity in the semiconfining bed underlying the shallowest permeable zone of the Floridan aquifer indicate upward movement of native water. This is consistent with the 200- to 600-mg/l increase in chloride concentration observed in water from the shallowest permeable zone during the test.     

Reinterpreting the Importance of Oxygen‐Based Biodegradation in Chloroethene‐Contaminated Groundwater

Chlororespiration is common in shallow aquifer systems under conditions nominally identified as anoxic. Consequently, chlororespiration is a key component of remediation at many chloroethene‐contaminated sites. In some instances, limited accumulation of reductive dechlorination daughter products is interpreted as evidence that natural attenuation is not adequate for site remediation. This conclusion is justified when evidence for parent compound (tetrachloroethene, PCE, or trichloroethene, TCE) degradation is lacking. For many chloroethene‐contaminated shallow aquifer systems, however, nonconservative losses of the parent compounds are clear but the mass balance between parent compound attenuation and accumulation of reductive dechlorination daughter products is incomplete. Incomplete mass balance indicates a failure to account for important contaminant attenuation mechanisms and is consistent with contaminant degradation to nondiagnostic mineralization products like CO₂. While anoxic mineralization of chloroethene compounds has been proposed previously, recent results suggest that oxygen‐based mineralization of chloroethenes also can be significant at dissolved oxygen concentrations below the currently accepted field standard for nominally anoxic conditions. Thus, reassessment of the role and potential importance of low concentrations of oxygen in chloroethene biodegradation are needed, because mischaracterization of operant biodegradation processes can lead to expensive and ineffective remedial actions. A modified interpretive framework is provided for assessing the potential for chloroethene biodegradation under different redox conditions and the probable role of oxygen in chloroethene biodegradation.     

Bioremediation in Fractured Rock: 1. Modeling to Inform Design,Monitoring, and Expectations

Field characterization of a trichloroethene (TCE) source area in fractured mudstones produced a detailed understanding of the geology, contaminant distribution in fractures and the rock matrix, and hydraulic and transport properties. Groundwater flow and chemical transport modeling that synthesized the field characterization information proved critical for designing bioremediation of the source area. The planned bioremediation involved injecting emulsified vegetable oil and bacteria to enhance the naturally occurring biodegradation of TCE. The flow and transport modeling showed that injection will spread amendments widely over a zone of lower‐permeability fractures, with long residence times expected because of small velocities after injection and sorption of emulsified vegetable oil onto solids. Amendments transported out of this zone will be diluted by groundwater flux from other areas, limiting bioremediation effectiveness downgradient. At nearby pumping wells, further dilution is expected to make bioremediation effects undetectable in the pumped water. The results emphasize that in fracture‐dominated flow regimes, the extent of injected amendments cannot be conceptualized using simple homogeneous models of groundwater flow commonly adopted to design injections in unconsolidated porous media (e.g., radial diverging or dipole flow regimes). Instead, it is important to synthesize site characterization information using a groundwater flow model that includes discrete features representing high‐ and low‐permeability fractures. This type of model accounts for the highly heterogeneous hydraulic conductivity and groundwater fluxes in fractured‐rock aquifers, and facilitates designing injection strategies that target specific volumes of the aquifer and maximize the distribution of amendments over these volumes.     

1,4‐Dioxane Soil Remediation Using Enhanced Soil Vapor Extraction: I. Field Demonstration

1,4‐Dioxane is totally miscible in water, sequestering in vadose pore water that can serve as a source of long‐term groundwater contamination. Although some 1,4‐dioxane is removed by conventional soil vapor extraction (SVE), remediation is typically inefficient. SVE efficiency is hindered by low Henry’s Law constants at ambient temperature and redistribution to vadose pore water if SVE wells pull 1,4‐dioxane vapors across previously clean soil. It was hypothesized that heated air injection and more focused SVE extraction (“Enhanced SVE” or XSVE) could increase the efficiency of 1,4‐dioxane vadose treatment, and this new process was tested at former McClellan Air Force Base, CA. The XSVE system had four peripheral heated air injection wells surrounding a 6.1 m × 6.1 m × 9.1 m deep treatment zone with a central vapor extraction well. After 14 months of operation, soil temperatures reached as high as ~90 °C near the injection wells and the treatment zone was flushed with ~20,000 pore volumes of injected air. Post‐treatment sampling results showed reductions of ~94% in 1,4‐dioxane and ~45% in soil moisture. Given the simplicity of the remediation system components and the promising demonstration test results, XSVE has the potential to be a cost‐effective remediation option for vadose zone soil containing 1,4‐dioxane.     

Arsenic Remediation Field Study Using a Sulfate Reduction and Zero‐Valent Iron PRB

Toxic and carcinogenic effects of arsenic in drinking water continue to impact people throughout the world and arsenic remains common in groundwater at cleanup sites and in areas with natural sources. Advances in groundwater remediation are needed to attain the low concentrations that are protective of human health and the environment. In this article, we present the successful use of a permeable reactive barrier (PRB) utilizing sulfate reduction coupled with zero‐valent iron (ZVI) to remediate the leading edge of a dissolved arsenic plume in a wetland area near Tacoma, Washington. A commercially available product (EHC‐M®, Adventus Americas Inc., Freeport, Illinois) that contains ZVI, organic carbon substrate, and sulfate was injected into a reducing, low‐seepage‐velocity aquifer elevated in dissolved arsenic and iron from a nearby, slag‐containing landfill. Removal effectiveness was strongly correlated with sulfate concentration, and was coincident with temporary redox potential (Eh) reductions, consistent with arsenic removal by iron sulfide precipitation. The PRB demonstrates that induced sulfate reduction and ZVI are capable of attaining a regulatory limit of 5 µg/L total arsenic, capturing of 97% of the arsenic entering the PRB, and sustaining decreased arsenic concentrations for approximately 2 years, suggesting that the technology is appropriate for consideration at other sites with similar hydrogeochemical conditions. The results indicate the importance of delivery and longevity of minimum sulfate concentrations and of maintaining sufficient dissolved organic carbon and/or microscale ZVI to precipitate FeS, a precursor phase to arsenic‐bearing pyrite that may provide a stable, long‐term sink for arsenic.     

Field Demonstration of the Horizontal Treatment Well (HRX Well®) for Passive In Situ Remediation

The horizontal reactive media treatment well (HRX Well®) uses directionally drilled horizontal wells filled with a treatment media to induce flow-focusing behavior created by the well-to-aquifer permeability contrast to passively capture proportionally large volumes of groundwater. Groundwater is treated in situ as it flows through the HRX Well and downgradient portions of the aquifer are cleaned via elution as these zones are flushed with clean water discharging from the HRX Well. The HRX Well concept is particularly well suited for sites where long-term mass discharge control is a primary performance objective. This concept is appropriate for recalcitrant and difficult-to-treat constituents, including chlorinated solvents, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), 1,4-dioxane, and metals. A full-scale HRX Well was installed and operated to treat trichloroethene (TCE) with zero valent iron (ZVI). The model-predicted enhanced flow through the HRX Well (compared to the flow in and equivalent cross-sectional area orthogonal to flow in the natural formation before HRX Well installation) and treatment zone width was consistent with flows and widths estimated independently by point velocity probe (PVP) testing, HRX Well tracer testing, and observed treatment in downgradient monitoring wells. The actual average capture zone width was estimated to be between 45 and 69 feet. Total TCE mass discharge reduction was maintained through the duration of the performance monitoring period and exceeded 99.99% (%). Decreases in TCE concentrations were observed at all four downgradient monitoring wells within the treatment zone (ranging from 50 to 74% at day 436), and the first arrival of treated water was consistent with model predictions. The field demonstration confirmed the HRX Well technology is best suited for long-term mass discharge control, can be installed under active infrastructure, requires limited ongoing operation and maintenance, and has low life cycle energy and water requirements.     

Field Study of Enhanced TCE Reductive Dechlorination by a Full‐Scale Whey PRB

This study evaluates the efficiency of a full‐scale, 81 m‐wide permeable reactive barrier (PRB) configured by injection of dairy whey in the downgradient region of a contaminant source zone to enhance the in situ biodegradation of high concentrations (10² to 10³μg/L) of chlorinated ethenes (CEs). Ten biannual whey injections were completed in a 3.5‐year pilot phase and 1.5‐year operational phase. Improved and sustained dechlorination was observed at extraction/injection and downgradient wells in the fully‐operational phase, when dried whey masses were increased from 13.6 kg to 230–360 kg, whey slurry volumes were increased from 2300 L to 307,000–480,000 L, and extraction/injection well loops were employed for the application of whey. At extraction/injection wells, CEs decreased to low (≤10 μg/L) or undetectable levels. At downgradient wells, average trichloroethene concentrations decreased, by as much as 100% (from ≤384.2 during the pilot phase to ≤102.6 μg/L during the operational phase), while average cis‐dichloroethene concentrations decreased by as much as 57.5% (from ≤6466.1 to ≤4912.2 μg/L). Downgradient vinyl chloride averages either increased by as much as 63.8% (from ≤859.6 to ≤1407.9 μg/L) or decreased by 64.0% (from 1375.4 to 880 μg/L). Downgradient ethene + ethane averages increased by as much as 73.2% (from ≤1145.3 to ≤1347.1 μg/L). On the basis of the 2008 average market price, the estimated material cost of whey is $1.96/kg organic carbon or, for the configuration of an 81 m PRB by biannual application of 300 kg whey, $325/year. Carbon substrate cost comparisons and implications for efficient in situ treatment design are discussed.     

Creation of a Subsurface Permeable Treatment Zone for Aqueous Chromate Contamination Using In Situ Redox Manipulation

An in situ redox manipulation (ISRM) method for creating a permeable treatment zone in the subsurface has been developed at the laboratory bench and intermediate scales and deployed at the field scale for reduction/immobilization of chrornate contamination. At other sites, the same redox technology is currently being tested for dechlorination of TCE. The reduced zone is created by injected reagents that reduce iron naturally present in the aquifer sediments from Fe(III) to surface-bound and structural Fe(II) species. Standard ground water wells are used, allowing treatment of contaminants too deep below the ground surface for conventional treneh-and-fill technologies.
A proof-of-principle field experiment was conducted in September 1995 at a chromate (hexavalent chromium) contaminated ground water site on the Hartford Site in Washington. The test created a 15 m (˜50 feet) diameter cylindrical treatment zone. The three phases of the test consisted of (1) injection of 77, 000 L (20, 500 gallons) of buffered sodium dithionite solution in 17.1 hours, (2) reaction for 18.5 hours, and (3) withdrawal of 375, 000 L (99, 600 gallons) in 83 hours. The withdrawal phase recovered 87% to 90% of the reaction products. Analysis of post-experimental sediment cores indicated that 60% to 100% of the available reactive iron in the treated zone was reduced. The longevity of the reduced zone is estimated between seven and 12 years based on the post-experiment core samples. Three and half years after the field test, the treatment zone remains anoxic, and hexavalent chromium levels have been reduced from 0.060 mg/L to below detection limits (0.008 mg/L). Additionally, no significant permeability changes have been detected during any phase of the experiment.     

Migration of Injected Wastewater with High Levels of Ammonia in a Saline Aquifer in South Florida

Treated wastewater with high levels of ammonia has been injected, since March 1983 into the deep saline units of the Lower Floridan aquifer (LFA) from a treatment plant near the east coast of Miami-Dade County in southeastern Florida. Monitoring wells in the plant recorded ammonia concentrations above ambient levels at hydrogeologic units located about 1000 ft (304.8 m) above injection depths between 2500 and 2800 ft (762 and 853 m) below sea level. A solute-transport model was developed to assess the horizontal and vertical extent of the injected ammonia, with ammonia moving from the injected zone into the overlying units: the upper semiconfining unit, the uppermost permeable zone of the LFA, and the middle semiconfining units of the Avon Park Formation. Ammonia is assumed to be transported under the effects of local heterogeneity in a porous limestone aquifer with high-salinity ambient groundwater and via upward migration through quasi-vertical pathways. A flow model of the migration of the injected ammonia was calibrated with PEST using head, salinity, and ammonia concentration data measured from 1983 to 2013. Borehole geophysical data support the high permeability of the uppermost permeable zone in the LFA. Average simulated head, normalized salinity, and ammonia concentration residuals over all monitoring wells were −1.37 ft, 0.01, and −0.67 mg/L, respectively. Model results are consistent with undetectable ammonia concentrations in the Upper Floridan aquifer.     

注聚合物井井下温度分布数值模拟研究

本文提出了一种计算注聚合物井井下温度分布的方法,该方法视井筒内的聚合物溶液为非牛顿幂律流体,考虑注入流体在井筒中同一截面上的速度变化,根据聚合物溶液在多孔介质中的流变性,依据广义达西定律求取渗流速度,基于能量守恒方程建立柱坐标系下注聚合物井井筒内流体、注入层及围岩的二维温度场模型.通过合理的边界条件,将三部分模型耦合起来,采用交替方向半隐式有限差分法求解建立的井下温度场模型.考查了注入量、注入时间、幂律指数和稠度系数、注入液温度等因素对井下温度场分布的影响,结果表明,当注入的聚合物溶液温度低于注入层的原始温度时,随注入量和注入时间的增大以及粘度的减小,注入层的温度降低;注入聚合物溶液温度与注入层原始温度差越大,注入层处的温度剖面异常越明显.本文数值计算结果可用于指导注聚合物井的井温测井应用.     

Electromagnetic‐Induction Logging to Monitor Changing Chloride Concentrations

Water from the San Joaquin Delta, having chloride concentrations up to 3590 mg/L, has intruded fresh water aquifers underlying Stockton, California. Changes in chloride concentrations at depth within these aquifers were evaluated using sequential electromagnetic (EM) induction logs collected during 2004 through 2007 at seven multiple‐well sites as deep as 268 m. Sequential EM logging is useful for identifying changes in groundwater quality through polyvinyl chloride‐cased wells in intervals not screened by wells. These unscreened intervals represent more than 90% of the aquifer at the sites studied. Sequential EM logging suggested degrading groundwater quality in numerous thin intervals, typically between 1 and 7 m in thickness, especially in the northern part of the study area. Some of these intervals were unscreened by wells, and would not have been identified by traditional groundwater sample collection. Sequential logging also identified intervals with improving water quality—possibly due to groundwater management practices that have limited pumping and promoted artificial recharge. EM resistivity was correlated with chloride concentrations in sampled wells and in water from core material. Natural gamma log data were used to account for the effect of aquifer lithology on EM resistivity. Results of this study show that a sequential EM logging is useful for identifying and monitoring the movement of high‐chloride water, having lower salinities and chloride concentrations than sea water, in aquifer intervals not screened by wells, and that increases in chloride in water from wells in the area are consistent with high‐chloride water originating from the San Joaquin Delta rather than from the underlying saline aquifer.