Inversion of IP-affected TEM responses of a two-layer earth

A numerical experiment has been applied to explore the potentialities and the limitations of the inversion of IP-affected TEM responses of a two-layer earth with a polarizable layer above (Model 1) or below (Model 2) a nonpolarizable layer. The IP effects have been incorporated into the models via a Cole–Cole complex frequency-dependent conductivity. One of us computed synthetic in-loop and coincident-loop transient responses with added Gaussian noise, and the other performed single and joint inversion of the two sets of pseudo-experimental data. Model 1 turns out to be advantageous over Model 2 in TEM applications and gives a good fit of the Cole–Cole parameters (chargeability, IP time constant, and exponent) even in the absence of a priori information. In the case of Model 2, the lack of a priori information causes problems as to recognize which layer is polarizable, and the fit of the Cole–Cole parameters is generally worse. The layer thicknesses and resistivities are rather accurate in both groups of models, irrespective of whether a priori information is available. As the upper layer increases in thickness (H₁), the fit of its parameters ever improves in both models while the parameters of the lower layer, on the contrary, contain a greater error. Joint inversion of in-loop and coincident-loop transients improves the fit in most cases.Relative rms error (σ_rel) does not depend on the upper layer thickness for Model 1 but decreases as H₁ increases in the case of Model 2. The error in joint inversion is times that in single inversion, which means that additional criteria other than σ_rel may be useful to estimate the inversion quality.     

Dielectric spectroscopy measured on dry,oil-, freshwater- and brine-wetted rocks using an insulating layer method and its relations to petrophysical parameters

Dielectric measurements, in the frequency range from 100 Hz to 15 MHz, were carried out using an insulating film method, on shaly and clean sandstone samples, dry, oil-impregnated, partially or fully saturated with fresh water or solutions of NaCl, at different concentrations. The results show that two kinds of polarization relating to interface dominate: the inner surface polarization (ISP) at the pore surface in rocks and the outer surface polarization (OSP) on the outer surface of the rock sample. Both ISP and OSP are of the Debye type and can be fitted very well using the Cole–Cole equation. The dielectric spectra of ISP reflect the length scale of pore size or throat size, whereas the relaxation strength depends heavily on the inner pore surface area. Clay contributes to dispersion in rocks, mainly through increasing the inner surface. When the effect of water content is minimized, the dielectric properties measured on brine-wetted rock samples show great salinity dependence. The increase in salinity shifts the relaxation spectra to the high frequency end; it also enhances the relaxation strength. In the frequency range studied, no dispersion in dry and oil-saturated samples has been observed, which underscores the key role played by water in dielectric polarization in rocks.     

Optical variability of the NLS1 galaxy Ark 564 in 1987–2004

We present the results of our U BV R _c I _c photoelectric and CCD photometry of the NLS1 galaxy Ark 564 in 1987–2004. Between late 1997 and 2002, a slight increase in brightness was observed followed by a small but systematic decline until 2004. Ark 564 has a low variability amplitude, within 0.2^m in the U BV R _c I _c bands. The galaxy’s spectral energy distribution at 3600–9000 Å is unlike those for Seyfert 1 (Syl) galaxies. A delay of the Ic flux relative to the B flux of about three days was found, which is in agreement with the standard disk model. This delay probably reflects the geometric size of the region that emits the observed continuum.     

Electrical conduction and polarization of calcite single crystals

The electrical conductivity and polarization properties of calcite single crystals with three orientations, namely, a (00.1) plane perpendicular to the crystallographic c axis (10.0) plane parallel to the crystallographic c axis, and a (10.4) cleavage plane, were studied by both complex impedance and thermally stimulated depolarization current (TSDC) measurements. Conductivities for (00.1)-, (10.0)-, and (10.4)-oriented single calcite crystals at 400–600?°C were 1.16?×?10^?7?–?1.05?×?10^?5, 7.40?×?10^?8?–?4.27?×?10^?6, and 4.27?×?10^?7?–?2.86?×?10^?5 Ω^?1 m^?1, respectively, and the activation energies for conduction were 112, 103, and 101?kJ?mol^?1, respectively. The TSDC spectra verified the electrical polarizability of calcite crystals. The activation energy for depolarization, estimated from TSDC spectra, of the (00.1)-, (10.0)-, and (10.4)-oriented calcite substrates were 112, 119, and 114?kJ?mol^?1, respectively. Considering the correlation between the processes of conduction and electric polarization, we proposed the mechanisms of conduction and polarization in calcite on the assumption of oxide ion transport.     

Evidence for deep groundwater flow and convective heat transport in mountainous terrain, Delta County, Colorado, USA

The Tongue Creek watershed lies on the south flank of Grand Mesa in western Colorado, USA and is a site with 1.5 km of topographic relief, heat flow of 100 mW/m², thermal conductivity of 3.3 W m^–1 °C^–1, hydraulic conductivity of 10^-8 m/s, a water table that closely follows surface topography, and groundwater temperatures 3–15°C above mean surface temperatures. These data suggest that convective heat transport by groundwater flow has modified the thermal regime of the site. Steady state three-dimensional numerical simulations of heat flow, groundwater flow, and convective transport were used to model these thermal and hydrological data. The simulations provided estimates for the scale of hydraulic conductivity and bedrock base flow discharge within the watershed. The numerical models show that (1) complex three-dimensional flow systems develop with a range of scales from tens of meters to tens of kilometers; (2) mapped springs are frequently found at locations where contours of hydraulic head indicate strong vertical flow at the water table, and; (3) the distribution of groundwater temperatures in water wells as a function of surface elevation is predicted by the model.     

57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy and magnetization of cation deficient Fe2TiO4 and FeCr2O4. Part II: Magnetization data

Magnetic properties are reported for synthetic cation deficient Fe₂TiO₄ and FeCr₂O₄ particles (<1 μm). Cation deficiency, achieved by oxidation, is characterized by the oxidation parameter z which represents the fraction of Fe²⁺ ions converted to Fe³⁺ in the spinel lattice (0≤z≤1). Fe₂TiO₄ (z=0.85) has a Curie temperature T _c that can only approximately be given with a value in the range 400–700 K and it has a magnetic moment per formula unit M≈0.50 μ_B (μ_B=Bohr's magneton) at 4.2 K, for FeCr₂O₄ it is T _c≥520 K and M (4.2 K) ≈0.16 μ_B. Magnetic hysteresis parameters at various temperatures show in part characteristic features due to relaxation phenomena. In the Ti-spinel, the latter are caused by a superposition of superparamagnetism and spin relaxation and in the Cr-spinel by superparamagnetism, in agreement with Mössbauer data (part I of this paper). The cation and vacancy distribution and magnetic coupling are discussed in both compositions with respect to magnetic moment data considering magnetic dilution by incorporated vacancies, and in the Ti-spinel also by non magnetic Ti⁴⁺.     

CO2 emission from Dianshan Lake in summer, East China

Shallow fresh water bodies in peat areas could be an important contributor to greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.In this study,the partial pressure of CO2 in the surface water of the Dianshan Lake was investigated insitu in August 2011.The average pCO2 in the study area was 2300μatm and fluctuated within the range of 989–5000μatm.pCO2 showed a reverse trend to the variations of pH and DO in the surface water of the Dianshan Lake.The water to air diffusion flux of CO2 of the upstream,middle lake and downstream were respectively 63,33 and 14mmol/m2/d.On average,the diffusion flux of CO2 of the whole lake was 31 mmol/m2/d.Consequently,our results show that during the sampling season,the Dianshan Lake appears to be a great source of CO2.It is also demonstrated that respiration could be the dominant biochemical reaction in the Dianshan Lake in summer.     

The natural high-pressure phase of cubic CdSe in impact glass from Zhamanshin crater

A CdSe high-pressure polymorph of the NaCl structural type of a₀ = 0.549 nm and Fm–3m space group was discovered in nature for the first time. Its composition is within range of CdSe–CdSe_1–х where x = 0.2 apfu. The phase was discovered as abundant nanosize inclusions in irgizite-type condensate glass separated from the sample of impact rock of the Zhamanshin crater (Central Kazakhstan). The treated mineral was presumably formed within a gas–plasma cloud at the moment of impact.     

Hydraulic conductivity distribution in crystalline rocks, derived from inflows to tunnels and galleries in the Central Alps, Switzerland

Inflow data from 23 tunnels and galleries, 136 km in length and located in the Aar and Gotthard massifs of the Swiss Alps, have been analyzed with the objective (1) to understand the 3-dimensional spatial distribution of groundwater flow in crystalline basement rocks, (2) to assess the dependency of tunnel inflow rate on depth, tectonic overprint, and lithology, and (3) to derive the distribution of fracture transmissivity and effective hydraulic conductivity at the 100-m scale. Brittle tectonic overprint is shown to be the principal parameter regulating inflow rate and dominates over depth and lithology. The highest early time inflow rate is 1,300 l/s and has been reported from a shallow hydropower gallery intersecting a 200-m wide cataclastic fault zone. The derived lognormal transmissivity distribution is based on 1,361 tunnel intervals with a length of 100 m. Such interval transmissivities range between 10^?9 and 10^?1 m²/s within the first 200–400 m of depth and between 10^?9 and 10^?4 m²/s in the depth interval of 400–1,500 m below ground surface. Outside brittle fault zones, a trend of decreasing transmissivity/hydraulic conductivity with increasing depth is observed for some schistous and gneissic geological units, whereas no trend is identified for the granitic units.     

Identification of microdetritus derived fromSpartina and its occurrence in the water column and intertidal sediments of Cumberland Basin,Bay of Fundy

A cellulose-specific staining procedure employing Herzberg’s chlor-zinc-iodide solution was developed to aid in the identification of microdetritus derived fromSpartina alterniflora and tested on samples of suspended and sedimented particulate matter collected in the Cumberland Basin at the head of the Bay of Fundy. Not all of the particles reacting positively to the stain could have been identified as originating fromSpartina on the basis of morphology alone, and the stain improved speed and confidence in identification even when particles could be identified morphologically.Spartina dominated particles greater than 100 μm while most of the smaller particles were amorphous aggregates of uncertain origin. In April 1985, at the start of the salt-marsh growing season, the average concentration of suspended microdetritus derived fromSpartina in Cumberland Basin surface water was 129 mg C m^?3 or 0.3–2.7% of the particulate organic carbon. The average concentration in intertidal sediments was 0.036 mg C g^?1 or 0.2–0.9% of the sediment organic carbon. Summing all reservoirs in the sediment (to a depth of 1 cm) and water column, the total amount of detritus originating fromSpartina in Cumberland Basin is 10–24% of the estimated annual net primary production of low marshS. alterniflora.     

Estimating regional-scale fractured bedrock hydraulic conductivity using discrete fracture network (DFN) modeling

Estimating bedrock hydraulic conductivity of regional fractured aquifers is challenging due to a lack of aquifer testing data and the presence of small and large-scale heterogeneity. This study provides a novel approach for estimating the bedrock hydraulic conductivity of a regional-scale fractured bedrock aquifer using discrete fracture network (DFN) modeling. The methodology is tested in the mountainous Okanagan Basin, British Columbia, Canada. Discrete fractures were mapped in outcrops, and larger-scale fracture zones (corresponding to lineaments) were mapped from orthophotos and LANDSAT imagery. Outcrop fracture data were used to generate DFN models for estimating hydraulic conductivity for the fractured matrix (K _m). The mountain block hydraulic conductivity (K _mb) was estimated using larger-scale DFN models. Lineament properties were estimated by best fit parameters for a simulated pumping test influenced by a fracture zone. Unknown dip angles and directions for lineaments were estimated from the small-scale fracture sets. Simulated K _m and K _mb values range from 10^–8 to 10^–7?m/s and are greatest in a N–S direction, coinciding with the main strike direction of Okanagan Valley Fault Zone. K _mb values also decrease away from the fault, consistent with the decrease in lineament density. Simulated hydraulic conductivity values compare well with those estimated from pumping tests.     

Lattice strain across Na–K interdiffusion fronts in alkali feldspar: an electron back-scatter diffraction study

Cation exchange experiments between gem quality sanidine \((X_\mathrm{Or} = 0.85)\) and KCl melt produced chemical alteration of alkali feldspar starting at the grain surface and propagating inwards by highly anisotropic Na–K interdiffusion on the alkali sublattice. Diffusion fronts developing in b-direction are very sharp, while diffusion fronts within the a–c-plane are comparatively broad. Due to the composition dependence of the lattice parameters of alkali feldspar, the diffusion induced compositional heterogeneity induces coherency stress and elastic strain. Electron back-scatter diffraction combined with the cross-correlation technique was employed to determine the lattice strain distribution across the Na–K interdiffusion fronts in partially exchanged single crystals of alkali feldspar. The strain changes gradually across the broad fronts within the a–c-plane, with a successive extension primarily in a-direction conferring to the composition strain in unstressed alkali feldspar. In contrast, lattice strain characterised by pronounced extension in b-direction is localised at the sharp diffusion fronts parallel to b, followed by a slight expansion in a-direction in the orthoclase-rich rim. This strain pattern does not confer with the composition induced lattice strain in a stress-free alkali feldspar. It may rather be explained by the mechanical coupling of the exchanged surface layer and the mechanically strong substratum. The lattice distortion localised at the sharp diffusion front may have an influence on the diffusion process and appears to produce a self-sharpening feedback, leading to a local reduction of component mobilities.     

Spectral induced polarization study on enzyme induced carbonate precipitations: influences of size and content on stiffness of a fine sand

Heterogeneity in either chemically or microbiologically induced carbonate-based ground improvement methods is a major obstacle in engineering application. Spectral induced polarization (SIP), an innovative and nondestructive method, which has demonstrated promise in monitoring microbial activity, was used in this study to monitor enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (EICP). The complex conductivities, together with the shear wave velocities (V_s), of an EICP modified sand were monitored using a self-developed spectral induced polarization–bender element column. The mean precipitate size was calculated by relaxation time (τ) and the Schwarz equation. The precipitate contents were calculated by cumulative gamma distribution function on the global polarization magnitude (m_n) with R²?=?0.989. The stiffness of the enhanced geomaterial, in terms of V_s, correlates to m_n with a cumulative lognormal distribution function with R²?=?0.967. Contact cementation was postulated as the dominant association pattern. The possible mechanism for this may be the formation of eddies and the nucleation of CaCO₃ crystals during precipitation. The results suggest that SIP can be used as an effective nondestructive monitoring tool to assess the stiffness of geomaterials.

     

Concentrations and composition of aerosols and particulate matter in surface waters along the transatlantic section

Along the transatlantic section from Ushuaia to Gdańsk (March 26–May 7, 2015; cruise 47 of R/V Akademik Ioffe), data were obtained on the concentrations of aerosols in the near-water layer of the atmosphere and of particulate matter in surface waters, as well as of organic compounds within the considered matter (C_org, chlorophyll a, lipids, and hydrocarbons). The concentrations of aerosols amounted to 1237–111 739 particles/L for the fraction of 0.3–1 μm and to 0.02–34.4 μg/m²/day for the matter collected by means of the network procedure. The distribution of aerosols is affected by circumcontinental zoning and by the fluxes from arid areas of African deserts. The maximum concentration of the treated compounds were found in the river–sea frontal area (the runoff of the Colorado River, Argentina), as well as when nearing the coasts, especially in the English Channel.     

First principles simulations of the stability and structure of grain boundaries in Mg2SiO4 forsterite

Our understanding of how grain boundaries (GBs) can dramatically influence key mineral properties such as creep and diffusion depends on knowledge of their detailed atomic and electronic structures. For this purpose, we simulate different types of tilt GBs, (0l1)/[100], (1l0)/[001] and (012)/[100] modeled with stepped and non-stepped surfaces in Mg₂SiO₄ forsterite using a first-principles approach based on density functional theory. Our results suggest that several configurations arising from Mg-terminated planes with tilt angles ranging from 16° to 67° are energetically competitive over the entire pressure regime (0–17 GPa) studied. At the ambient pressure, the predicted important features of the boundaries include distorted bonds (Si–O and Mg–O distances changed by 1 and 4 %, respectively), coordination defects (four and fivefold Mg–O coordination), and void spaces (0.2–0.9 × 10^?10 m³/m²). Also, the interface induces splitting of electronic states from the conduction band and kinks at the top of the valence band. These structural and electronic features continue to exist at higher pressures. The formation enthalpy and excess volume for each boundary configuration studied were shown to systematically increase and decrease, respectively, with pressure. The predicted energy range (0.8–1.7 J/m² at zero pressure) widens by a factor of two at 17 GPa (1.1–2.8 J/m²). The presence of low-density and structurally distorted regions imply that these GBs can serve as primary impurity segregation sites, fast diffusion pathways, and electron-trapped regions, which all are relevant for mantle rheology.     

The crystal and magnetic structure of Li-aegirine LiFe3+Si2O6: a temperature-dependent study

Single crystals of Li-aegirine LiFe³⁺Si₂O₆ were synthesized at 1573?K and 3?GPa, and a polycrystalline sample suitable for neutron diffraction was produced by ceramic sintering at 1223?K. LiFe³⁺Si₂O₆ is monoclinic, space group C2/c, a=9.6641(2)?Å, b= 8.6612(3)?Å, c=5.2924(2)?Å, β=110.12(1)^° at 300?K as refined from powder neutron data. At 229?K Li-aegirine undergoes a phase transition from C2/c to P2₁ /c. This is indicated by strong discontinuities in the temperature variation of the lattice parameters, especially for the monoclinic angle β and by the appearance of Bragg reflections (hkl) with h+k≠2n. In the low-temperature form two non-equivalent Si-sites with 〈SiA–O〉=1.622?Å and 〈SiB–O〉=1.624?Å at 100?K are present. The bridging angles of the SiO₄ tetrahedra O3–O3–O3 are 192.55(8)° and 160.02(9)° at 100?K in the two independent tetrahedral chains in space group P2₁ /c, whereas it is 180.83(9)° at 300?K in the high-temperature C2/c phase, i.e. the chains are nearly fully expanded. Upon the phase transition the Li-coordination changes from six to five. At 100?K four Li–O bond lengths lie within 2.072(4)–2.172(3)?Å, the fifth Li–O bond length is 2.356(4)?Å, whereas the Li–O3?A bond lengths amount to 2.796(4)?Å. From ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer spectroscopic measurements between 80 and 500?K the structural phase transition is characterized by a small discontinuity of the quadrupole splitting. Temperature-dependent neutron powder diffraction experiments show first occurrence of magnetic reflections at 16.5?K in good agreement with the point of inflection in the temperature-dependent magnetization of LiFe³⁺Si₂O₆. Distinct preordering phenomena can be observed up to 35?K. At the magnetic phase transition the unit cell parameters exhibit a pronounced magneto-striction of the lattice. Below T _N Li-aegirine shows a collinear antiferromagnetic structure. From our neutron powder diffraction experiments we extract a collinear antiferromagnetic spin arrangement within the a–c plane.     

The Influence of Benthic Macrofauna on the Erodibility of Intertidal Sediments with Varying mud Content in Three New Zealand Estuaries

Fine sediment inputs can alter estuarine ecosystem structure and function. However, natural variations in the processes that regulate sediment transport make it difficult to predict their fate. In this study, sediments were sampled at different times (2011–2012) from 45 points across intertidal sandflat transects in three New Zealand estuaries (Whitford, Whangamata, and Kawhia) encompassing a wide range in mud (≤63 μm) content (0–56 %) and macrofaunal community structure. Using a core-based erosion measurement device (EROMES), we calculated three distinct measures of sediment erosion potential: erosion threshold (? _c ; N m^?2), erosion rate (ER; g m^?2 s^?1), and change in erosion rate with increasing bed shear stress (m _e ; g N^?1 s^?1). Collectively, these measures characterized surface (? _c and ER) and sub-surface (m _e ) erosion. Benthic macrofauna were grouped by functional traits (size and motility) and data pooled across estuaries to determine relationships between abiotic (mud content, mean grain size) and biotic (benthic macrofauna, microbial biomass) variables and erosion measures. Results indicated that small bioturbating macrofauna (predominantly freely motile species <5 mm in size) destabilized surface sediments, explaining 23 % of the variation in ? _c (p ≤ 0.01) and 59 % of the variation in ER (p ≤ 0.01). Alternatively, mud content and mean grain size cumulatively explained 61 % of the variation in m _e (p ≤ 0.01), where increasing mud and grain size stabilized sub-surface sediments. These results highlight that the importance of biotic and abiotic predictors vary with erosion stage and that functional group classifications are a useful way to determine the impact of benthic macrofauna on sediment erodibility across communities with different species composition.     

Seasonal dynamics and production of the hydromedusan Clytia hemisphaerica (Hydromedusa: Leptomedusa) in Southampton water

In 1990 and 1991, a zooplankton sampling program revealed the presence of the hydromedusan Clytia hemisphaerica (Hydromedusa: Leptomedusa) from early May through late September throughout Southampton Water. The most notable aspects of the population dynamics of C. hemisphaerica in Southampton Water were the considerable interannual variation in peak abundance—10.65 m^?3 in 1990 and 2.44 m^?3 in 1991—and temporal patterns of mean bell diameter. The suggestion of almost continuous reproduction in 1990, as indicated by high abundance and large size range on each sampling date, is in contrast to 1991, where at the Cracknore site, five cohorts were produced at 21 d to 80 d intervals. The maximum bell diameter attained in each generation was typically 10–11 mm. At the Cracknore site in 1991, in situ bell diameter growth was linear within each cohort. A trend of increased growth rate with each subsequent cohort, from 26 μg DW d^?1 to 106 μg DW d^?1 was coincident with increasing water temperature. Annual production ranged from 0.98 mg C m^?3 yr^?1 to 1.08 mg C m^?3 yr^?1 in 1990 and 0.35 mg C m^?3 yr ^?1 to 0.48 mg C m^?3 yr^?1 in 1991. Daily P: B ratios varied in each cohort from 0.05 to 0.35.     

Determination of Yield Surfaces for Isotropic Non-Cohesive Particulate Materials by the Discrete Element Method

We perform numerical simulations using the discrete element method (DEM) to determine yield surfaces for large samples of randomly packed uniform spheres with constant normal and tangential contact stiffnesses (linear spring model) and uniform inter-particle friction coefficient μ, for a large range of values of the inter-particle friction coefficient μ. The beauty of DEM is that the micromechanical properties of the spheres, especially the inter-particle friction coefficient μ, are known exactly. Further, simulations can be performed with particle rotation either prohibited or unrestrained, which provides an effective means for evaluating analytical models that employ these assumptions. We compare the resulting yield surfaces to the Mohr–Coulomb, Matsuoka–Nakai, Lade–Duncan, and Drucker–Prager yield surfaces, and determine the relationship between the resulting material friction angle ? on the macroscale and the inter-particle friction coefficient μ (or the inter-particle friction angle ? _μ ) on the microscale. We find the Lade–Duncan yield surface provides the best agreement, by far, with the simulations in all cases. We also monitor inter-particle friction work and particle rotation within each specimen during the DEM simulations, both globally and on a particle-by-particle basis, and we compare the results obtained from DEM simulations in which the spheres were allowed full three-dimensional translational and rotational freedom of motion and DEM simulations in which particle rotation was prohibited.     

Correlation of large displacement drained shear strength of landslide soils measured by direct shear and ring shear devices

Based on a laboratory study of drained direct shear tests of remoulded, pre-cut and polished specimens and drained ring shear tests of uncut and remoulded specimens of slip surface materials of five landslide soils, significant correlations of the mobilized shear strength parameters, cohesion (c, c _r) and internal friction angle (Φ, Φ_r), are proposed. The investigated soils consisted of the slip surface material belonging to tuffaceous clay, mudstone, loess and siltstone. Most of the previous studies on residual shear strength measured by reversal direct shear and ring shear devices have obtained significantly different results using the two devices, even when pre-cut and polished specimens were used in the direct shear device. In this study, the residual shear strength values of remoulded specimens measured by a ring shear device are shown to significantly correlate with the drained large displacement shear strength values of remoulded specimens, which were measured using pre-cut and polished specimens in a direct shear device. The correlation between the cohesion measured in the two shear devices is expressed by the linear relationship, $ {c_{\text{r}}} = 0.{7394}c - {6}.{6857} $ , while the correlation between the friction angle measured in the two devices is expressed by the linear relationship, $ {\Phi_{\text{r}}} = {1}.0{852}\Phi - {6}.0{247} $ . The proposed linear correlations for effective cohesion (c′) and effective friction angle (Φ′) have yielded significant coefficients of determination within an effective normal stress range of 30–150?kN/m².