在围压条件下切口岩石破裂过程的实验研究

本文根据地震的断层说观点在室温、围压600—1,200巴条件下研究了具切口的花岗闪长岩、辉长岩和大理岩试件的破裂发展过程。在连续增加的差应力作用下观测到:切口内部充填的软弱夹层首先发生剪切变形和破裂,接着在切口端部一侧扩展张性裂纹,然后在切口前缘方向扩展剪切裂纹,最后发生贯通试件的剪切和张裂-剪切主破坏。张裂纹扩展长度受到围压的强烈抑制。岩石的切口结构和岩性变化对破裂迹线的空间展布和主破坏机制有重要影响。讨论了实验结果在断层扩展型地震的形成过程及其在预报预测方面的意义     

Influence of confining pressure and impact loading on mechanical properties of amphibolite and sericite-quartz schist

In order to investigate the dynamic mechanical properties of amphibolite and sericite-quartz schist under confi ning pressure, two rocks are subjected to impact loadings with different strain rates and confi ning pressures by using split Hopkinson pressure bar equipment with a confi ning pressure device. Based on the experimental results, the stress-strain curves are analyzed and the effects of confi ning pressure and strain rates on the dynamic compressive strength, peak strain and failure mode are summarized. The results show that:(1) The characteristics of two rocks in the ascent stage of the stressstrain curve are basically the same, but in the descent stage, the rocks gradually show plastic deformation characteristics as the confi ning pressure increases.(2) The dynamic compressive strength and peak strain of two rocks increase as the strain rate increases and the confi ning pressure effects are obvious.(3) Due to the effect of confi ning pressure, the normal stress on the damage surface of the rock increases correspondingly, the bearing capacity of the crack friction exceeds the material cohesion and the slippage of the fractured rock is controlled, which all lead to the compression and shear failure mode of rock. The theoretical analysis and experimental methods to study the dynamic failure mode and other related characteristics of rock are useful in developing standards for engineering practice.     

应力途径对岩石脆性-延性变化的影响

用两种加载方式对岩石的破裂进行了实验研究。一种方式是在一定的围压下增加轴压使岩石破裂（A型）;另一种方式是在一定围压下增加轴压直到破裂前某一应力状态,然后停止加轴压转而减小围压使岩石破裂（B型）。所用的岩石样品为济南辉长岩和山东掖县白大理岩。着重研究应力途径对岩石脆性-延性变化的影响。辉长岩在1.5千巴以下两种应力途径下的破裂都表现为脆性,但是对于同样的应力状态,B型实验比A型实验显得更脆。随着围压增加到200-250巴之间,大理岩由脆性转变为延性。围压250巴以上,大理岩的A型实验发生延性破裂。样品承受载荷的能力是逐渐丧失的。破裂过程中声发射率极低,听不到破裂声响。最后在样品中形成了剪切断面,但破裂很慢。然而,在大理岩的B型实验中,围压在250巴以上发生了脆性破裂,其表现为轴向应力突然下降,伴随着脆性破裂的声响并有声发射率剧增的前兆。看来,B型应力途径对岩石起了一个脆化的作用。     

裂纹间动态相互作用的实验观测与理论分析──以共线剪切裂纹归并为例

本文以共线剪切裂纹的归并为例,研究裂纹系的动态相互作用．实验结果表明：在张破裂的意义上,小间距共线剪切裂纹的内端部实际上是阻碍结构,通过迂回弯曲的张破裂归并．本文提出一种估计张破裂扩展途径的近似方法,利用张应力破裂判据找出了潜在的破裂扩展途径的第一近似,较好地模拟了共线裂纹的破裂途径,和现有的数值模拟方法比较,可以大大缩短机时,简化计算程序,保证精确度．本研究结出了岩石剪切破裂“隧道效应”（即破裂跳过障碍体,而障碍体本身不破坏）的机理,还给出了脆性介质在摩擦、磨损过程中碎屑产生的机理．     

Modelling the stress-strain behaviour of saturated rocks undergoing triaxial deformation using complex electrical conductivity measurements

Measurement of complex electrical conductivity as a function of frequency is an extremely sensitive probe for changes in pore and crack volume, crack connectivity, and crack surface topography. Such measurements have been made as a function of pore fluid chemistry, hydrostatic confining pressure, as well as uniaxial and triaxial deformation. This paper will; (1) describe the effects of triaxial deformation on the complex electrical conductivity of saturated porous rocks, (2) use the electrical data to model the mechanical stress-strain behaviour, and (3) compare the modelled behaviour with the stress-strain behaviour measured during the deformation. Experimental conductivity data tracks how the rock undergoes compaction with progressive loss of crack volume, followed by dilatation due to new crack formation, growth of existing cracks, crack interlinkage, and finally failure, as axial strain is increased. We have used the complex electrical data to produce a direction-sensitive (anisotropic) crack damage parameter, and used it to calculate the effective Young's modulus by employing the models of Walsh and Bruner. Comparison of the synthetic stress-strain curves so produced, with the experimentally derived stress-strain curves shows good agreement, particularly for undrained tests. This modelling is an improvement on similar curves produced using isotropic crack damage parameters derived from acoustic emission data. The improvement is likely to be due to the directional sensitivity of the electrical conductivity measurement, and its ability to discriminate between the formation of isolated cracks, and those cracks that contribute to the inter-connected crack space i.e. those cracks upon which transport properties of the rock such as electrical conductivity, and mechanical properties depend most critically during triaxial deformation.     

大理岩试件中裂缝的逆向共轭剪破裂

本文介绍了以激光全息干涉法观测单轴压缩下,大理岩岩样表面的变形位移场。全息干涉图可以反映出由于岩石内部微裂隙丛集激增所导致的变形局部化,实验采用板状大理岩试件,在中心处预制了不同角度的裂缝,实验在MTS伺服压机中加载直至宏观破坏,观测了裂隙的发展过程。实验表明:当裂缝角小于45时,先在裂缝尖端处的张应力集中部位出现新裂纹,它的起裂角(与原裂缝的交角)90,裂纹弯向压力方向并趋于稳定。当>45时,在上述张裂纹稳定后,在裂缝尖端附近再次发生张裂,其起裂角60,同样弯向压力方向后稳定。在这些前期张破裂稳定后,在张裂的相反方向,也即裂缝的共轭方向上,出现内部微裂隙的丛集,并随后发生宏观的剪破坏,我们认为此逆向剪切破坏与大理岩的多晶组构有关,与应变弱化过程中变形和应力的调整有关。      

基于唐山7.8级地震探讨动态应力作用

运用三维非线性动态有限元方法(Non-linear Dynamic FEM)仿真模拟研究了菱形模型的动态应力作用,分析了1976年唐山7.8级地震.结果表明:(1)唐山地震前增强的中强地震产生的冲击力形成的应力波反射后发生半波损失, 成为动态的拉伸应力,通过减小内摩擦而引起岩石产生裂纹、局部破裂并发生串通,一方面触发地震,另一方面为孕育唐山地震积累能量,表现为正反馈过程.(2)唐山地震产生的冲击力加卸载存在时间差,造成加卸载冲击波相位不同,结果产生的动应力和围压叠加致使围压波动和下降,导致抗剪切强度降低,使初始破裂分别向北东、西南方向传播.(3)冲击力的卸载,相对于产生拉伸性的应力波,反射后发生半波损失,成为动态的压缩应力,致使围压增大并导致破裂停止;而动态应力在传播过程中衰减.因此,余震的发生是一个负反馈过程.     

用实验方法研究水泥石动态断裂韧性

为了减轻射流侵彻对水泥环的破坏,改善界面的密封胶结性能,必须对现有的水泥石进行改性研究。根据超混复合材料的原理,我们在水泥石的配比中增加几种填料,通过填料影响改变水泥石的动态断裂韧性。将水泥石制成短棒试件,用分段式Hopk inson压杆对几种改性配方的水泥石的动态断裂韧性进行实验测定,给出了部分实验结果。采用反射式动态焦散线方法,对六种水泥石材料的动态断裂韧性进行了实验研究,给出了实验结果。并比较了短棒实验和动态焦散线法测量动态断裂韧性的结果,两者吻合较好。研究表明:纤维增强是提高水泥石抗冲击性能的有效途径。     

Ultrasonic Velocities, Acoustic Emission Characteristics and Crack Damage of Basalt and Granite

Acoustic emissions (AE), compressional (P), shear (S) wave velocities, and volumetric strain of Etna basalt and Aue granite were measured simultaneously during triaxial compression tests. Deformation-induced AE activity and velocity changes were monitored using twelve P-wave sensors and eight orthogonally polarized S-wave piezoelectric sensors; volumetric strain was measured using two pairs of orthogonal strain gages glued directly to the rock surface. P-wave velocity in basalt is about 3 km/s at atmospheric pressure, but increases by > 50% when the hydrostatic pressure is increased to 120 MPa. In granite samples initial P-wave velocity is 5 km/s and increases with pressure by < 20%. The pressure-induced changes of elastic wave speed indicate dominantly compliant low-aspect ratio pores in both materials, in addition Etna basalt also contains high-aspect ratio voids. In triaxial loading, stress-induced anisotropy of P-wave velocities was significantly higher for basalt than for granite, with vertical velocity components being faster than horizontal velocities. However, with increasing axial load, horizontal velocities show a small increase for basalt but a significant decrease for granite. Using first motion polarity we determined AE source types generated during triaxial loading of the samples. With increasing differential stress AE activity in granite and basalt increased with a significant contribution of tensile events. Close to failure the relative contribution of tensile events and horizontal wave velocities decreased significantly. A concomitant increase of double-couple events indicating shear, suggests shear cracks linking previously formed tensile cracks.     

原始电阻率各向异性岩石电阻率变化的方向性

在3种非含岩成分造成的岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本(在采集和加工过程中，标本完整性遭 到破坏的标本)，和一种由含岩成分形成的 岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本上，布设多个电极，并将标本用水饱和. 然后用多电极组合法 ，将己布电极组合成不同方向、不同极距的电阻率各向异性测线. 采用单轴压缩、低围压 三 轴压缩和剪切3种加载方式，对标本进行动态电阻率变化实验. 观测标本电阻率随承载力的 变化. 实验结果表明∶对于岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本，在电阻率变化各向异性方面，与 岩石 原始电阻率各向同性标本相似，即∶裂隙和破碎带通过区域的测点，视电阻率变化各向异性 结果好，４种组合求得的４个各向异性主轴方向趋向一致，且与破碎带方向基本吻合；裂隙 和破碎带不经过区域的测点，４个视电阻率变化各向异性主轴方向不一致，或者根本求不出 各向异性解. 这后一种情况，在裂隙面平行测量面时，表现最为明显.     

内孔加压三轴条件下岩石的破裂试验研究

本文应用岩石孔压三轴仪,研究花岗岩和大理岩的破裂特性,探讨应力途径对岩石破裂强度的影响。试验结果表明:(1)岩石的内孔水压致裂强度随围压的增加而线性增加,(2)在拉,压应力组合条件下,岩石呈现出拉破特性,引起岩石破裂的拉应力随着轴压增加而减少;(3)孔压致裂法获得的岩石抗拉强度值偏高     

Seismic-frequency Laboratory Measurements of Shear Mode Viscoelasticity in Crustal Rocks II: Thermally Stressed Quartzite and Granite

—Forced torsional oscillation techniques have been used to explore the seismic-frequency shear mode viscoelasticity of specimens of two crustal rocks (Cape Sorell quartzite and Delegate aplite), cycled between room temperature and 700°C under conditions of moderate confining pressure. The anisotropy and intergranular inhomogeneity of thermal expansivity in these materials give rise to large deviatoric stresses, resulting in thermal cracking at temperatures above a pressure-dependent threshold temperature, associated with the onset of very pronounced temperature sensitivity of the shear modulus, in general accord with the predictions of fracture mechanics models. For Delegate aplite in particular, the shear modulus behaves reproducibly during multiple thermal cycles at different confining pressures, consistent with the notion that the thermal cracks are of low aspect ratio (minimum/maximum dimension), and are therefore readily closed by the prevailing confining pressure once the thermal stresses are removed. Marked frequency-dependent dissipation of shear strain energy is observed on heating each rock to temperatures ≥ 500°C, although the attenuation varies significantly with prior thermal history, probably as a result of progressive dehydration and relaxation of deviatoric stresses. Temperature and pressure dependent crack densities for Delegate aplite have been estimated by comparison of the observed shear moduli with those expected for a crack-free aggregate. In parallel with the forced oscillation tests, measurements have been made of the rate at which (argon) pore pressure equilibrium is re-established following a perturbation. Combination of these results, which provide a proxy for permeability, with the inferred crack densities indicates that the variation of permeability with crack density is well described by a percolation model with a threshold crack density of ～0.2.     

A Poroelastic Description of Permeability Evolution

Pore pressure changes in a geothermal reservoir, as a result of injection and/or production of water, result in changes of stress acting on the reservoir rock and, consequently, changes in the mechanical and transport properties of the rock. Bulk modulus and permeability were measured at different pressures and temperatures. An outcropping equivalent of Rotliegend reservoir rock in the North German Basin (Flechtinger sandstone) was used to perform hydrostatic tests and steady state fluid flow tests. Permeability measurements were conducted while cycling confining pressure; the dependence of permeability on stress was determined at a constant downstream pressure of 1 MPa. Also, temperature was increased stepwise from 30 to 140 °C and crack porosity was calculated at different temperatures. Although changes in the volumes of cracks are not significant, the cracks control fluid flow pathways and, consequently, the permeability of the rock. A new model was derived which relates microstructure of porosity, the stress–strain curve, and permeability. Porosity change was described by the first derivative of the stress–strain curve. Permeability evolution was ascribed to crack closure and was related to the second derivative of the stress–strain curve. The porosity and permeability of Flechtinger sandstone were reduced by increasing the effective pressure and decreased after each pressure cycle.     

The Effect of Varying Damage History in Crystalline Rocks on the P- and S-Wave Velocity under Hydrostatic Confining Pressure

Cracks play a very important role in many geotechnical issues and in a number of processes in the Earth’s crust. Elastic waves can be used as a remote sensing tool for determining crack density. The effect of varying crack density in crystalline rock on the P- and S-wave velocity and dynamic elastic properties under confining pressure has been quantified. The evolution of P- and S-wave velocity were monitored as a suite of dry Westerly granite samples were taken to 60, 70, 80 and 90 % of the unconfined uniaxial strength of the sample. The damaged samples were then subjected to hydrostatic confining pressure from 2 MPa to 200 MPa to quantify the effect of varying crack density on the P- and S-wave velocity and elastic properties under confining pressure. The opening and propagation of microcracks predominantly parallel to the loading direction during uniaxial loading caused a 0.5 and 6.3 % decrease in the P- and S-wave velocity, respectively. During hydrostatic loading, microcracks are closed at 130 MPa confining pressure. At lower pressures the amount of crack damage in the samples has a small but measureable effect. We observed a systematic 6 and 4 % reduction in P- and S-wave velocity, respectively, due to an increase in the fracture density at 2 MPa confining pressure. The overall reduction in the P- and S-wave velocity decreased to 2 and 1 %, respectively, at 50 MPa. The elastic wave velocities of samples that have a greater amount of microcrack damage are more sensitive to pressure. Effective medium modelling was used to invert elastic wave velocities and infer crack density evolution. Comparing the crack density results with experimental data on Westerly granite samples shows that the effective medium modelling used gave interpretable and reasonable results. Changes in crack density can be interpreted as closure or opening of cracks and crack growth.     

复杂应力条件下地基岩石细观破坏研究

为了研究复杂应力条件下的深基坑岩石细观破坏问题,本构方程采用由应变空间导出的弹塑性损伤细观力学模型,借助有限元计算方法,实现了岩石三维破裂过程的数值模拟。采用细观破坏单元网格消去法,实现了有限元模拟裂纹扩展过程;利用位移加载来实现岩石逐渐破裂过程;数值模拟灰岩单轴拉伸及压缩破坏试验、双轴拉伸破坏试验和三轴受压破坏试验,得到其非线性应力—应变曲线和不同载荷阶段弹塑性损伤破裂演化系列图像;分析细观非均匀性对岩石宏观破裂力学行为的影响。研究表明,在复杂应力条件下,随着围压增大,峰值抗压强度明显提高,塑性变形明显增大。本文研究对深基坑施工过程中预防工程事故的发生具有借鉴意义。     

压力及流体对岩石孔隙结构与黏弹性的影响规律研究:理论模型及实验观测

地质成因和构造/热应力导致地壳岩石中的孔隙结构（裂隙和粒间孔）的变化.影响岩石黏弹性的因素包括压力、孔隙度、孔隙中包含的流体和孔隙几何形状等.相对于岩石中的硬孔隙,岩石黏弹性（衰减和频散）受软孔隙（裂隙）的影响更大.本文选取三块白云岩样本,进行了不同围压和流体条件下的超声波实验测量.利用CPEM（Cracks and Pores Effective Medium,裂隙和孔隙有效介质）模型获得了岩石高、低频极限的弹性模量,并通过Zener体（标准线性体）模型将CPEM模型拓展到全频带而得到CPEM-Zener模型,用该模型拟合岩石松弛和非松弛状态下的实验数据,本文得到平均裂隙纵横比和裂隙孔隙度以及纵波速度和品质因子随频率的变化关系.结果表明,饱水岩石的平均裂隙纵横比和裂隙孔隙度均高于饱油岩石,随着压差（围压和孔隙压力的差值）的增加,饱油岩石中的裂隙首先闭合.并且压差在70 MPa以内时,随着压差增大,岩石的平均裂隙纵横比和裂隙孔隙度在饱水和饱油时的差值增大,此时流体类型对于岩石裂隙的影响越来越显著,此外,对饱水岩石,平均裂隙纵横比随压差增加而增大,这可能是由于岩石中纵横比较小的裂隙会随压差增大而逐渐趋于闭合.在饱水和饱油岩石中,裂隙孔隙度和裂隙密度都随着压差增加而减小.通过对裂隙密度和压差的关系进行指数拟合,本文获得压差趋于0时的裂隙密度,且裂隙密度随孔隙度增大而增大,增大速率随压差增加而降低.针对饱水和饱油的白云岩样本,CPEM-Zener模型预测的纵波频散随压差增大而减小,此变化趋势和实验测得的逆品质因子随压差的变化关系基本一致,由此进一步验证了模型的实用性.本研究对岩石的孔隙结构和黏弹性分析以及声波测井、地震勘探的现场应用有指导意义.     

A Model for the Mechanical Behaviour of Bentheim Sandstone in the Brittle Regime

— The mechanical behaviour of Bentheim sandstone, a homogeneous quartz-rich sandstone with porosity of 22.8%, was investigated by triaxial compression tests conducted on dry samples. At confining pressures up to 35 MPa, the failure mode was characterized by a typical brittle deformation regime, as the samples showed dilatancy and failed by strain softening and brittle faulting. Previous studies have shown that the mechanical behaviour and failure mode of brittle porous granular rocks are governed by the time-dependent growth of microcracks. We analyse this process using the “Pore Crack Model” based on fracture mechanics analysis. It is consistent with the microstructure of porous granular rocks since it considers the growth of axial cracks from cylindrical holes in two dimensions. These cracks grow when their stress intensity factors reach the subcritical crack growth limit. Interaction between neighbouring cracks is introduced by calculating the stress intensity factor as the sum of two terms: a component for an isolated crack and an interaction term computed using the method of successive approximations. It depends on crack length, pore radius, pore density, and applied stresses. The simulation of crack growth from cylindrical holes, associated with a failure criterion based on the coalescence of interacting cracks, is used to compare the theoretical stress at the onset of dilatancy and at macroscopic rupture to the experimental determined values. Our approach gives theoretical results in good agreement with experimental data when microstructural parameters consistent with observations are introduced.     

水饱和裂纹对地壳岩样中地震波速及各向异性的影响

选择４种地壳岩石样品,经干燥或水饱和处理后在不同围压条件下测量了在其中传播的纵、横波的速度及其各向异性．在大气压条件下低孔隙度(＜１％岩样中,水饱和样品中的纵波速度明显地比干燥样品中的高,但横波速度的差别不大．因为在低孔隙度岩样中纵波速度对孔隙流体的反应比横波速度敏感,可以用泊松比的变化来反映随着围压的增加晶粒间流体对弹性波传播特性的影响．根据实验数据,按Ｏ’Ｃｏｎｎｅｌｌ模型分别计算了干燥和水饱和岩样中的裂纹密度,与通过实测体应变曲线得到的裂纹孔隙度十分吻合．利用横波的速度和偏振特性可以推断岩样中定向排列微裂纹的空间取向情况．研究表明,同时测量在岩样中传播的纵、横波的速度,通过Ｖｐ／Ｖｓ比值可以给出有关颗粒边界流体的证据,也可以估计岩样中的裂纹密度．