Seismic stability analysis of reinforced slopes

In this paper, the seismic stability of slopes reinforced with geosynthetics is analysed within the framework of the pseudo-static approach. Calculations are conducted by applying the kinematic theorem of limit analysis. Different failure modes are considered, and for each analytical expressions are derived that enable one to readily calculate the reinforcement force required to prevent failure and the yield acceleration of slopes subjected to earthquake loading. Several results are presented in order to illustrate the influence of seismic forces on slope stability. Moreover, a suitable procedure based on the assessment of earthquake-induced permanent displacement is proposed for the design of reinforced slopes in seismically active areas.     

Seismic safety of high concrete dams

China is a country of high seismicity with many hydropower resources. Recently,a series of high arch dams have either been completed or are being constructed in seismic regions,of which most are concrete dams. The evaluation of seismic safety often becomes a critical problem in dam design. In this paper,a brief introduction to major progress in the research on seismic aspects of large concrete dams,conducted mainly at the Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research(IWHR) during the past 60 years,is presented. The dam site-specific ground motion input,improved response analysis,dynamic model test verification,field experiment investigations,dynamic behavior of dam concrete,and seismic monitoring and observation are described. Methods to prevent collapse of high concrete dams under maximum credible earthquakes are discussed.     

A review of considerations on seismic safety of embankments and earth and rock-fill dams

An attempt has been made to summarise the methods of approach used in assessing the dynamic behaviour and safety of earth and rock-fill dams under seismic shaking until about the present time, from the soil engineer's point of view. Shortcomings of the pseudo-static method, procedures to estimate the permanent deformations, liquefaction effects, and experience gained from the previous events have been reviewed. Observing that the most important cause of instability is the occurence liquefaction during ground motions, cyclic approach and steady-state approach in assessing the liquefaction potential have been addressed and recent practical approaches of analysis and design have been referred. It has been found noteworthy to recall that incidence of failure or serious damage to well-engineered dams has not been experienced, even under strong ground shaking.     

Seismic performance sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of gravity dams

Uncertainties in structural engineering are often arising from the modeling assumptions and errors, or from variability in input loadings. A practical approach for dealing with them is to perform sensitivity and uncertainty analysis in the framework of stochastic and probabilistic methods. These analyses can be statically and dynamically performed through nonlinear static pushover and IDA techniques, respectively. Of the existing structures, concrete gravity dams are infrastructures which may encounter many uncertainties. In this research, probabilistic analysis of the seismic performance of gravity dams is presented. The main characteristics of the nonlinear tensile behavior of mass concrete, along with the intensity of earthquake excitations are considered as random variables in the probabilistic analysis. Using the tallest non‐overflow monolith of the Pine Flat gravity dam as a case study, its response under static and dynamic situations is reliably examined utilizing different combinations of parameters in the material and the seismic loading. The sensitivity analysis reveals the relative importance of each parameter independently. It will be shown that the undamaged modulus of elasticity and tensile strength of mass concrete have more significant roles on the seismic resistance of the dam than the ultimate inelastic tensile strain. In order to propagate the parametric uncertainty to the actual seismic performance of the dam, probabilistic simulation methods such as Monte Carlo simulation with Latin hypercube sampling, and approximate moment estimation techniques will be used. The final results illustrate the possibility of using a mean‐parameter dam model to estimate the mean seismic performance of the dam. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Three-dimensional limit analysis of seismic displacement of slope reinforced with piles

Three-dimensional (3D) limit analysis of seismic stability of slopes reinforced with one row of piles is presented in this paper. A 3D rotational mechanism for earth slope is adopted. The lateral forces provided by the piles are evaluated by the theory of plastic deformation. Expressions for calculating the yield acceleration coefficient are derived. A random iteration method is employed to find the critical acceleration coefficient for the 3D slopes with or without reinforcement. Based on the kinematic theory within the frame of the pseudo-static approach, a 3D model is proposed for evaluating the critical state and the subsequent displacement response. Furthermore, Newmark׳s analytical procedure is employed to estimate the cumulative displacement induced by given earthquake loads. An example is shown to illustrate the influence of the piles on the seismic displacement of the 3D slopes.     

基于反应位移法的现浇钢筋混凝土地下沟道抗震分析

在系统介绍反应位移法原理和计算流程的基础上,结合某电站具体工程进行了不同截面形式地下沟道的反应位移法抗震分析.概述了沟道设计分析过程的参数化实现方法,其中采用五点法实现了沟道中应力到内力的转化.对不同截面形式沟道的内力分布进行了具体的分析研究,绘制了截面的内力包络图,通过内力计算给出了配筋方案.计算得出的规律可以为地下沟道设计与施工提供依据,推动反应位移法在地下结构抗震分析中的应用.     

Generalized failure envelope for caisson foundations in cohesive soil: Static and dynamic loading

The response of massive caisson foundations to combined vertical (N), horizontal (Q) and moment (M) loading is investigated parametrically by a series of three-dimensional finite element analyses. The study considers foundations in cohesive soil, with due consideration to the caisson-soil contact interface conditions. The ultimate limit states are presented by failure envelopes in dimensionless and normalized forms and the effects of the embedment ratio, vertical load and interface friction on the bearing capacity are studied in detail. Particular emphasis is given on the physical and geometrical interpretation of the kinematic mechanisms that accompany failure, with respect to the loading ratio M/Q. Exploiting the numerical results, analytical expressions are derived for the capacities under pure horizontal, moment and vertical loading, for certain conditions. For the case of fully bonded interface conditions, comparison is given with upper bound limit equilibrium solutions based on Brinch Hansen theory for the ultimate lateral soil reaction. A generalized closed-form expression for the failure envelope in M–Q–N space is then proposed and validated for all cases examined. It is shown that the incremental displacement vector of the caisson at failure follows an associated flow rule, with respect to the envelope, irrespective of: (a) the caisson geometry, and (b) the interface conditions. A simplified geometrical explanation and physical interpretation of the associativity in M-Q load space is also provided. Finally, the derived failure envelope is validated against low (0.67 Hz) and high frequency (5 Hz) dynamic loading tests and the role of radiation damping on the response of the caisson at near failure conditions is unraveled.     

Seismic stability of earth-rock dams using finite element limit analysis

In this study, a finite element limit analysis method is developed to assess the seismic stability of earth-rock dams. A pseudo-static approach is employed within the limit analysis framework to determine the lower and upper bounds on the critical seismic coefficients of dams. The interlocking force in the soil is considered, and the rockfill material is assumed to follow the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion and an associated flow rule. Based on the native form of the failure criterion, the lower and upper bound theorems are formulated as second-order cone programming problems. The nonlinear shear strength properties of rockfill materials are also considered. The developed finite element limit analysis is applied to two different types of earth-rock dams. The results indicate that the rigorous lower and upper bounds are very close even for rockfill materials with large internal friction angles. The failure surfaces are easily predicted using the contour of the yield function and the displacement field obtained by the limit analysis method. In addition, the pore water pressures are modelled as external forces in the limit analysis to assess the seismic stability of earth-rock dams in the reservoir filling stage.     

Risk analysis for clustered check dams due to heavy rainfall

Check dams are commonly constructed around the world for alleviating soil erosion and preventing sedimentation of downstream rivers and reservoirs.Check dams are more vulnerable to failure due to their less stringent flood control standards compared to other dams.Determining the critical precipitation that will result in overtopping of a dam is a useful approach to assessing the risk of failure on a probabilistic basis and for providing early warning in case of an emergency.However,many check dams are built in groups,spreading in several tributaries in cascade forms,comprising a complex network.Determining the critical precipitation for dam overtopping requires a knowledge of its upstream dams on whether they survived or were overtopped during the same storm,while these upstream dams in turn need the information for their upstream dams.The current paper presents an approach of decomposing the dam cluster into(1)the heading dam,(2)border dams,and(3)intermediate dams.The algorithm begins with the border dams that have no upstream dams and proceeds with upgraded maps without the previous border dams until all the dams have been checked.It is believed that this approach is applicable for small-scale check dam systems where the time lag of flood routing can be neglected.As a pilot study,the current paper presents the analytical results for the Wangmaogou Check Dam System that has 22 dams connected in series and parallel.The algorithm clearly identified 7 surviving dams,with the remaining ones being overtopped for a storm of 179.6 mm in 12 h,which is associated with a return period of one in 200 years.     

Seismic rehabilitation and analysis of Chaohe earth dam

Stability of earth dams during earthquakes has been a major concern for geotechnical engineers in seismic active regions. Liquefaction induced slope failure occurred at the upstream slope of a major earth dam in the suburb of Beijing, China, during the 1976 Tangshan Earthquake. The gravelly soil with loose initial condition liquefied under relatively small ground vibration. In recent years, a major seismic rehabilitation project was carried out on a similar earth dam nearby using dumped quarry stone. Seismic stability analysis was carried out using model test, finite element simulation, and pseudo-static slope stability program after taking into account the influence of excess pore pressure.     

Seismic behaviour of cracked concrete gravity dams

A finite element model of incremental displacement constraint equations (IDCE), based on an existing node‐to‐surface concept, is implemented to deal with dynamic contact surfaces in the seismic behaviour analysis of cracked concrete gravity dams. After verification for sliding, rocking and impact, the IDCE model is applied to study the seismic responses of concrete gravity dams with different profiles and crack locations for a variety of parameters, such as coefficient of friction, water level and type of earthquake, as well as impact damping based on the concept of coefficient of restitution. It is revealed that cracked concrete gravity dams can experience not only sliding and rocking modes, but also the drifting mode in some cases of crack either at the base or at a height. Downstream sliding is normally accompanied by rocking, especially for the cases of crack at a height. Due to rocking and drifting, a cracked dam may still acquire a certain amount of residual sliding even if the effective coefficient of friction is relatively high. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

粘性土剪切波速不确定性的统计分析

土体剪切波速具有显著的不确定性。基于全国地震安全性评价工作实测的粘性土的大量剪切波速数据,采用2χ检验方法研究了粘性土不同埋深的剪切波速的概率分布。依据所获得的概率分布,采用相应的统计方法给出了粘性土不同埋深的剪切波速的平均值、最大值、最小值、标准差和变异系数,并给出了95%参考值下限和上限,所获得的结果可用于检验场地剪切波速测试结果的可靠性和粗略估计无实测资料场地土的剪切波速。     

Seismic isolation analysis of FPS bearings in spatial lattice shell structures

<正>A theoretical model of a friction pendulum system(FPS) is introduced to examine its application for the seismic isolation of spatial lattice shell structures.An equation of motion of the lattice shell with FPS bearings is developed.Then, seismic isolation studies are performed for both double-layer and single-layer lattice shell structures under different seismic input and design parameters of the FPS.The influence of frictional coefficients and radius of the FPS on seismic performance are discussed.Based on the study,some suggestions for seismic isolation design of lattice shells with FPS bearings are given and conclusions are made which could be helpful in the application of FPS.     

钢筋混凝土渡槽结构地震反应数值分析

首先介绍了钢筋混凝土渡槽结构在地震荷载作用下的分析理论,根据这些理论建立了渡槽结构的动力有限元分析模型,分别采用干模态法、附加质量法和ALE法考虑渡槽结构液固耦合作用,通过具体的工程算例,对钢筋混凝土渡槽结构进行了不同工况下的数值模拟研究,包括混凝土非线性材料分析、渡槽结构静水与动水响应分析、渡槽结构自振特性分析和槽墩的能力曲线分析。研究表明,考虑固液耦合作用的渡槽实体有限元模型能较好地模拟渡槽结构地震反应,并得到相应的渡槽结构地震反应规律。     

Seismic performance of bar-mat reinforced-soil retaining wall: Shaking table testing versus numerical analysis with modified kinematic hardening constitutive model

Reinforced-soil retaining structures possess inherent flexibility, and are believed to be insensitive to earthquake shaking. In fact, several such structures have successfully survived destructive earthquakes (Northridge 1994, Kobe 1995, Kocaeli 1999, and Chi-Chi 1999). This paper investigates experimentally and theoretically the seismic performance of a typical bar-mat retaining wall. First, a series of reduced-scale shaking table tests are conducted, using a variety of seismic excitations (real records and artificial multi-cycle motions). Then, the problem is analyzed numerically employing the finite element method. A modified kinematic hardening constitutive model is developed and encoded in ABAQUS through a user-defined subroutine. After calibrating the model parameters through laboratory element testing, the retaining walls are analyzed at model scale, assuming model parameters appropriate for very small confining pressures. After validating the numerical analysis through comparisons with shaking table test results, the problem is re-analyzed at prototype scale assuming model parameters for standard confining pressures. The results of shaking table testing are thus indirectly “converted” (extrapolated) to real scale. It is shown that: (a) for medium intensity motions (typical of M_s≈6 earthquakes) the response is “quasi-elastic”, and the permanent lateral displacement in reality could not exceed a few centimeters; (b) for larger intensity motions (typical of M_s≈6.5–7 earthquakes) bearing the effects of forward rupture directivity or having a large number of strong motion cycles, plastic deformation accumulates and the permanent displacement is of the order of 10–15 cm (at prototype scale); and (c) a large number of strong motion cycles (N>30) of unrealistically large amplitude (A=1.0 g) is required to activate a failure wedge behind the region of reinforced soil. Overall, the performance of the bar-mat reinforced-soil walls investigated in this paper is totally acceptable for realistic levels of seismic excitation.     

土石坝地震稳定性分析评述

对土石坝地震稳定性分析中几个重要问题，土料本构模型、地震反应分析和永久变形分析作了简要评述和初步分析，并指出其中存在的若干问题。另外，对土石坝地震稳定性分析现状、各类分析方法及其适用条件做了评述。     

Incremental dynamic analysis of concrete gravity dams including base and lift joints

The growth in computer processing power has made it possible to use time-consuming analysis methods such as incremental dynamic analysis(IDA) with higher accuracy in less time.In an IDA study,a series of earthquake records are applied to a structure at successively increasing intensity levels,which causes the structure to shift from the elastic state into the inelastic state and finally into collapse.In this way,the limit-states and capacity of a structure can be determined.In the present research,the IDA of a concrete gravity dam considering a nonlinear concrete behavior,and sliding planes within the dam body and at the dam-foundation interface,is performed.The influence of the friction angle and lift joint slope on the response parameters are investigated and the various limit-states of the dam are recognized.It is observed that by introducing a lift joint,the tensile damage can be avoided for the dam structure.The lift joint sliding is essentially independent of the base joint friction angle and the upper ligament over the inclined lift joint slides into the upstream direction in strong earthquakes.     

Prediction of the behaviour of landslide dams using a geomorphological dimensionless index

Landslide dams are a common phenomenon. They form when a landslide reaches the bottom of a river valley causing a blockage. The first effect of such a dam is the infilling of a lake that inundates the areas upstream, while the possibility of a sudden dam collapse, with a rapid release of the impounded waters, poses a higher flood risk to the downstream areas. The results of the main inventories carried out to date on landslide dams, have been examined to determine criteria for forecasting landslide dam evolution with particular emphasis on the assessment of dam stability. Not all landslides result in the blockage of a river channel. This only occurs with ones that can move a large amount of material with moderate or high‐velocities. In most cases, these landslides are triggered by rainfall events or high magnitude earthquakes. A relationship also exists between the volume of the displaced material and the landslide dam stability. Several authors have proposed that landslide dam behaviour can be forecast by defining various geomorphological indexes, that result from the combination of variables identifying both the dam and the dammed river channel. Further developments of this geomorphological approach are presented in this paper by the definition of a dimensionless blockage index. Starting with an analysis of 84 episodes selected worldwide, it proved to be a useful tool for making accurate predictions concerning the fate of a landslide dam. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical analysis of reinforced soil walls with granular and cohesive backfills under cyclic loads

Novel approaches to the dynamic analysis of the reinforced soil walls have been reported in the literature. Use of marginal soils reduces the cost of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls if proper drainage measures are taken. Therefore the affect of using cohesive marginal soils as backfill in geosynthetic reinforced retaining structures were investigated in this research. The dynamic response of reinforced soil walls was investigated in a similar focus, using finite element analysis. The results obtained from walls with cohesive backfill were compared to the results obtained from walls with granular backfill. The height of the wall was chosen as 6 m in the two-dimensional plane strain finite element model and the base acceleration was chosen to be a harmonic motion. The effects of various parameters like the backfill type, facing type, reinforcement stiffness, and peak ground acceleration on the cyclic response of reinforced soil retaining walls were investigated. After analyzing the wall response for end of construction and dynamic excitation phases, it was determined that the deformations and reinforcement tensile loads increased during the cyclic load application and that the amount of additional deformation that occurred during cyclic load application was strongly related to backfill soil type, facing type, reinforcement type and peak ground acceleration. It was determined that a cohesive backfill and geotextile reinforcement was a good combination to reduce the deformations of geosynthetic reinforced walls during cyclic loading for medium height walls.     

基于能量原理的钢筋混凝土筒体结构抗震性能研究

本文通过能量法研究了钢筋混凝土筒体结构的抗震性能。文中采用振型分解法按等效单自由度体系求解筒体结构的滞回输入能;用pushover法分析了滞回耗能在结构层间的分布规律及结构自身的耗能能力;根据楼层滞回耗能与弹塑性层间位移的关系求出了薄弱层的弹塑性位移。对一高层钢筋混凝土框架-筒体结构在7度罕遇地震下的抗震性能进行了评估,通过与非线性动力时程分析的对比,证明了方法的可行性。