中建南盆地北部海底麻坑地貌特征及成因机制

海底麻坑是与流体逸散相关的一种海底凹陷地貌, 在全球海域的陆架、陆坡和深海平原等均有广泛发育。文章利用高分辨率的多波束测深数据和三维地震资料, 在中建南盆地北部识别出330个规模不等的海底麻坑, 按照麻坑形态可将其分为: 圆形、椭圆形、长条形及新月形麻坑。研究区内海底麻坑直径可达1500~7900m, 最大深度可达175m, 其中圆形麻坑规模(直径、深度)小于椭圆形、长条形和新月形麻坑, 表明圆形麻坑处于麻坑发育早期阶段。三维地震资料显示不同类型海底麻坑的下伏地层中均发育有断层、气烟囱、裂隙等流体逸散通道, 为该区域海底麻坑形成提供了有利条件。在海底麻坑演化过程中, 底流对海底麻坑的地貌形态具有改造作用。当圆形麻坑下伏地层流体活动强烈时, 流体可沿着运移通道直接向麻坑内壁渗漏, 使得其内壁塌陷, 逐渐演化成椭圆形麻坑。由于椭圆形麻坑处于底流活动影响的早期阶段, 其受底流改造作用较弱。在持续性底流活动的强烈改造作用下, 紧密排列的圆形或椭圆形麻坑逐渐拉伸演变成长条形麻坑。当底流作用于孤立的圆形麻坑时, 在底流的上游侧沉积速率增加, 麻坑在上游侧接受沉积被掩埋, 下游侧地层被侵蚀, 从而形成新月形麻坑。根据研究区海底麻坑成因机制分析, 文章首次提出了一种展示中建南盆地不同类型海底麻坑演化过程模型, 该模型有助于理解中建南盆地流体逸散过程和底流活动, 并且可为其他区域海底麻坑演化过程研究提供参考。     

Pockmarks in the inner Oslofjord,Norway

Multibeam bathymetric surveys of the Inner Oslofjord, Norway have revealed a high density of pockmarks in the 179-km² inner fjord area, which contains over 500 pockmarks of varying size, typically 20–50 m in diameter and 2–10 m deep. These pockmarks have been investigated with a variety of techniques, including acoustic subbottom profiling, sedimentological and geochemical analyses of cores, remotely operated vehicle observation, and morphometry. Both the distribution and shapes of the pockmarks suggest that they are related to structures in the bedrock underlying relatively thin (<50 m) unconsolidated glacial and postglacial sediments. The data provide no direct indication of a particular mode of pockmark formation, but release of large amounts of biogenic, shallow methane seems unlikely. Several lines of evidence point to a continuous process of pockmark formation followed by inactivity, with some pockmarks recently active whereas others have been inactive for a considerable time. Some pockmarks are characterised by coarse sediment in their centres. The density, variety and easy access make this pockmark field an ideal model area for pockmark research. John S. Gray is deceased.     

南海礼乐盆地海底麻坑地貌及成因分析

本文基于高分辨率多波束测深和浅地层剖面数据,首次对南海礼乐盆地南部坳陷海底麻坑进行了系统的识别研究。共识别出各类麻坑81个,其中麻坑直径最大约2.4 km,坑深最大约157 m。麻坑种类多样:按平面形态主要分为圆形、椭圆形、拉长形和新月形麻坑;按组合方式分为孤立麻坑、链状麻坑和复合麻坑;按直径分为正常麻坑和大型麻坑。区域内发育多条大型海底峡谷,峡谷侵蚀引起两侧地层稳定性降低,气体储层遭受破坏,泄露的气体沿断层或气烟囱等喷发出海底形成麻坑。而因麻坑生成时剥蚀的沉积物质与周围水体混合并逐渐发展成浊流,在一定程度上促进海底峡谷向下延伸。研究区内单个麻坑的平面形态最初为圆形或椭圆形,之后由于重力流和峡谷侵蚀的影响,逐渐发展成拉长形或新月形,麻坑之间也会发生组合形成复合麻坑。链状麻坑与冲沟的形成联系密切,沿垂直于等深线方向展布的链状麻坑在重力流的冲刷下,发育成底部平坦的麻坑冲沟。对比分析全球其他海域麻坑,发现海底麻坑尺寸与水深关系密切,在深水区域更容易发育大型麻坑。     

Unit pockmarks associated with Lophelia coral reefs off mid-Norway: more evidence of control by ‘fertilizing’ bottom currents

High-resolution topographic mapping of Norwegian deep-water Lophelia coral reefs and their immediate surrounding seafloor has disclosed striking associations with small (<5?m diameter) ‘unit’ pockmarks. A total of four study areas with Lophelia reefs and unit pockmarks are here described and discussed. At the large Fauna reef, which spans 500?m in length and 100?m in width (25?m in height), there is a field of 184 unit pockmarks occurring on its suspected upstream side. Three other, intermediate-sized Morvin reefs are associated with small fields of unit pockmarks situated upstream of live Lophelia colonies. For two of the latter locations, published data exist for geochemical and microbial analyses of sediment and water samples. Results indicate that these unit pockmarks are sources of light dissolved hydrocarbons for the local water mass, together with nutrient-rich pore waters. It is suggested that the ‘fertilized’ seawater flows with the prevailing bottom current and feeds directly into the live portion of the Lophelia reefs. With an estimated growth rate of ~1?cm per year for the Morvin Lophelia corals, it would take between 1,000 and 2,000?years for the reefs to colonize the closest unit pockmarks, currently occurring 10–20?m from their leading (live) edges.     

Sedimentary and structural control on pockmark development—evidence from the Nyegga pockmark field, NW European margin

The Nyegga region, located at water depths of about 600–800 m on the NW European continental margin, contains more than 200 pockmarks. Recently collected TOPAS seismic profiles and EM1002 bathymetric records now provide high-resolution information on their seabed and shallow sub-seabed geological setting. The identified pockmarks are up to 15 m deep, between 30 m and 600 m across and reach a maximum area of ca. 315,000 m². The pockmarks are sediment-empty features. They do not have any preferred direction of orientation and show large variations in their shape. The pockmarks are restricted to a <16.2 cal. ka old sediment unit. This unit comprises sandy mud and is characterised by sedimentation rates of ca. 1 mm/year. The pockmarks are localised over a thick late Plio-Pleistocene prograding sediment package and a polygonal faulted Miocene-Oligocene ooze-rich unit. The late Plio-Plistocene deposits host bottom simulating reflectors, indicative of gas hydrate-bearing sediments. Inspection of the newly collected high-resolution dataset, combined with previously analysed sediment cores and 2D multichannel seismic profiles, reveals that the Nyegga pockmark field does not show any strong relationship between seabed features, sub-seabed structures and the sedimentary setting. This suggests a more complex evolution history of the Nyegga pockmark field then previously thought.     

北黄海海底麻坑群形态的定量研究及控制因素

本文基于高分辨率多波束水深数据和反向散射强度数据,对北黄海海底麻坑群的形态参数进行定量研究,结合水深、地形坡度和后向散射强度的变化准确界定了麻坑的轮廓,识别出圆形、椭圆形、拉长型麻坑共282个,并在ArcGIS软件中对其形态参数进行了分析计算,麻坑的平均长轴1.36 km,短轴0.78 km,直径0.94 km,面积0.88 km2,平均周长3.82 km,长宽比1.83,深度0.3~2.5 m,平均面积密集度13%,麻坑的剖面形态有麻坑边缘凹陷、中部有明显凸起（W1型）,麻坑边缘凹陷、中部略凸起（W2型）,麻坑中部单纯凹陷（V型）,分别集中分布在麻坑群的北部、南部、西部。麻坑的平面规模大、深度小的原因与地层中形成麻坑的游离气体浓度较小有关,也可能受到了地震、海啸等外力的诱发。麻坑的长轴优势走向为ENE-WSW、NNE-SSW,底流对其形状的塑造起了较大作用,部分麻坑成串排列,形成串珠状的麻坑链,其排列方式受到海底古河道、古潟湖等沉积地层结构的控制。海底麻坑群发育区反向散射强度为-60~-71 dB,麻坑内部较麻坑外部平均高5 dB,可能为麻坑内部气体泄漏引起海底沉积物被剥蚀后残留下的粗颗粒物质或海底生物活动留下的遗迹导致的。     

Mapping of sound scattering objects in the northern part of the Barents Sea and their geological interpretation

On cruises 25 (2007) and 28 (2011) of the R/V Akademik Nikolai Strakhov in the northern part of the Barents Sea, the Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, conducted comprehensive research on the bottom relief and upper part of the sedimentary cover profile under the auspices of the International Polar Year program. One of the instrument components was the SeaBat 8111 shallow-water multibeam echo sounder, which can map the acoustic field similarly to a side scan sonar, which records the response both from the bottom and from the water column. In the operations area, intense sound scattering objects produced by the discharge of deep fluid flows are detected in the water column. The sound scattering objects and pockmarks in the bottom relief are related to anomalies in hydrocarbon gas concentrations in bottom sediments. The sound scattering objects are localized over Triassic sequences outcropping from the bottom. The most intense degassing processes manifest themselves near the contact of the Triassic sequences and Jurassic clay deposits, as well as over deep depressions in a field of Bouguer anomalies related to the basement of the Jurassic–Cretaceous rift system     

舟山群岛东部青浜岛海域海底麻坑地貌及其成因分析

海底麻坑是由地层中流体向海底快速喷发或缓慢渗漏所形成的一种凹陷地貌,对其形态及成因机理进行深入研究具有重要意义.本研究基于高分辨率多波束地形、侧扫声纳、浅地层剖面及多道地震探测数据,对舟山群岛东部青浜岛海域发育的麻坑及其微地貌进行研究,分析表明:研究区发育有3个大型麻坑,并受到NE—SW向底流的改造而出现不同程度沿此方...     

Morphology of pockmarks along the western continental margin of India: Employing multibeam bathymetry and backscatter data

This study addresses the morphology of pockmarks along the western continental margin of India using multibeam bathymetry and backscatter data. Here, for the first time we have utilized the application of ArcGIS (Geographical Information System) for understanding the morphology of pockmarks from the western continental margin of India. The pockmarks observed in water depths of 145–330 m are circular, elliptical or elongated in plan-view, with an average length and width of 157 (±72) m and 83 (±19) m respectively. The average pockmark relief and perimeter are 1.9 (±0.9) m and 412 (±181) m, respectively. The pockmarks have average areas and volumes of 10 759 m² and 15 315 m³ respectively. Spatial separation that coincides with 210 m isobath divides the pockmarks into two groups with differing distributions and morphologies. These pockmarks originated from seepages of biogenic or thermogenic gas or from pore fluids from deeper sources, migrated vertically along the faults. Besides a possible structural control, the pockmark morphologies are also affected by bottom currents and/or by submarine slumping. The average acoustic backscatter strength from pockmark centre is higher (−35 dB) than the average backscatter of the total area (−40 dB), which suggests their possible linkage to the precipitation of diagenitic minerals from biodegradation of seepage material.     

Effect of winter meteorological conditions on the formation of the cold bottom water in the eastern Bering Sea shelf

The cold bottom water, formed in the previous winter on the eastern Bering Sea shelf, remains throughout the summer. in order to examine the mechanism for the formation of the cold bottom water, we used minimum water temperature in the cold bottom water observed over the eastern Bering Sea shelf for 30 years. The interannual variation in the minimum water temperature of the cold bottom water was closely related to that of mean air temperature during cooling period at St. Paul Island. The air temperature in previous winter primarily affects the cold bottom water. We estimated decrement of the water temperature due to ice melting with simple box model. It was found with the box model that decreasing of the water temperature and lowering of the salinity depend on ice melting. To investigate the cause of interannual variation in air temperature in winter, we applied EOF analysis to the 500 hPa height. The Pacific/North American pattern (PNA) was related to mean air temperature at St. Paul Island in cooling season and the cold bottom water temperature. These results suggest the connection between ENSO events and warming or cooling in the Bering Sea shelf in winter.     

Discussion of “formation mechanism of large pockmarks in the subaqueous Yellow River Delta”

Abstract

The excess pore pressure accumulation is a key factor when estimating the formation mechanism of large pockmarks, as it determines the liquefaction potential of marine sediments due to water waves. The governing equations for excess pore pressure may have different forms for various types of sediments and then shall reflect the cyclic plasticity of the soil. For water waves propagating over a porous seabed, the liquefaction area induced by waves is generally progressive, which indicates that the liquefaction area will move forward following the wave train. Therefore, the excess pore pressure accumulation can be used to explain the occurrence of the large pockmarks, but the dimension of the pockmark may be related to the heterogeneity of sediment or the wave properties affected by the topography in the subaqueous Yellow River Delta.     

Evidence for the biotic origin of seabed pockmarks on the Australian continental shelf

The generally accepted formation mechanism of pockmarks worldwide is the expulsion of fluid at the seafloor, but such a mechanism does not explain the close association between pockmarks and seabed infrastructure such as pipelines and wellheads within the Stag oil field on the North West Shelf of Australia. Furthermore, certain characteristics of the pockmarks, such as conical mounds of sediment positioned around their perimeters, are strongly suggestive of a biotic origin. Pockmarks in this case are typically 5 m in diameter and 1 m deep, excavated within a sandy seabed in 45 m water depth. Inspection of ROV footage acquired during oilfield operations within the Stag field supports but does not entirely confirm without doubt the proposition that the pockmarks are created by fish of the genus Epinephelus.Having determined the characteristic features of pockmarks within the Stag field which mark them as biotic excavations, data from commercial seabed surveys at 11 other sites on the North West Shelf, all of which reveal numerous pockmarks, was reviewed for evidence of similar pockmark characteristics. Based on the review, it appears likely that the majority of pockmarks on the shallow North West Shelf (between 40 m and 130 m water depth) are representative of biological rather than geological activity. The probability that pockmarks less than approximately 10 m in diameter throughout the remainder of the Australian continental shelf are also the result of purely biological activity is high, as demonstrated by the analysis of data from three further sites.Close inspection of seabed survey data from further afield could extend the findings of this paper throughout not only the tropical Indo-West Pacific (the range of the particular fish species implicated on the North West Shelf), but potentially worldwide if other species can be shown to display similar behaviour.     

Fluid expulsion features associated with sand waves on Australia’s central North West Shelf

Multibeam swath bathymetric data collected in 95–120 m water depth on Australia’s North West Shelf revealed two distinct populations of sand waves: a laterally extensive, low-amplitude composite form comprising superimposed dunes and ripples, and a laterally restricted form which has unusually high bedform heights and slopes. These large subaqueous sand waves comprise bioclastic ooid/peloid sand. Significantly, evidence of seabed fluid flow was detected in association with the high-amplitude sand waves. This evidence includes seabed pockmarks approximately 2–15 m in diameter imaged with side-scan sonar, tubular and massive carbonate concretions dredged from the seabed, and potential active venting of a fluid plume from the seabed observed during an underwater camera tow. Molecular and isotopic analyses of carbonate concretions collected from within pockmarks associated with the high-amplitude sand waves indicate that the fluids from which they precipitated comprise modern seawater and are not related to thermogenic fluids or microbial gases. The fluid flow is interpreted to be driven by macrotidal currents flowing over the relatively steep slopes of the high-amplitude sand waves. Pockmarks and carbonate concretions then develop where the interstitial flows are confined and focused by subsurface ‘mounds’ in a shallow seismic reflector.     

Microbially mediated methane and sulfur cycling in pockmark sediments of the Gdansk Basin, Baltic Sea

In the Russian sector of the Gdansk Basin (Baltic Sea), high organic matter influx fuels microbial processes resulting in the formation of reduced sediments with elevated methane concentrations. Investigated areas of geoacoustic anomalies (～245 km²) were found to contain three distinct geomorphologic structures (pockmarks), with a total area of ～1 km². Methane anomalies recorded in the water above one of these pockmarks were traced as high as 10 m above the bottom. In pockmark sediments, sulfate reduction and anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) occurred at high rates of 33 and 50 µmol dm^?3 day^?1, respectively. Integrated over 0–180 cm sediment depths, AOM exceeded methanogenesis almost tenfold. High AOM rates resulted from methane influx from deeper sediment layers. The δ¹³C signature of methane carbon (?78.1 to ?71.1‰) indicates the biogenic origin of pockmark methane. In pockmark sediments, up to 70% of reduced sulfur compounds was possibly produced via AOM.     

More than a century of bathymetric observations and present-day shallow sediment characterization in Belfast Bay, Maine, USA: implications for pockmark field longevity

Mechanisms and timescales responsible for pockmark formation and maintenance remain uncertain, especially in areas lacking extensive thermogenic fluid deposits (e.g., previously glaciated estuaries). This study characterizes seafloor activity in the Belfast Bay, Maine nearshore pockmark field using (1) three swath bathymetry datasets collected between 1999 and 2008, complemented by analyses of shallow box-core samples for radionuclide activity and undrained shear strength, and (2) historical bathymetric data (report and smooth sheets from 1872, 1947, 1948). In addition, because repeat swath bathymetry surveys are an emerging data source, we present a selected literature review of recent studies using such datasets for seafloor change analysis. This study is the first to apply the method to a pockmark field, and characterizes macro-scale (>5 m) evolution of tens of square kilometers of highly irregular seafloor. Presence/absence analysis yielded no change in pockmark frequency or distribution over a 9-year period (1999–2008). In that time pockmarks did not detectably enlarge, truncate, elongate, or combine. Historical data indicate that pockmark chains already existed in the 19th century. Despite the lack of macroscopic changes in the field, near-bed undrained shear-strength values of less than 7 kPa and scattered downcore ¹³⁷Cs signatures indicate a highly disturbed setting. Integrating these findings with independent geophysical and geochemical observations made in the pockmark field, it can be concluded that (1) large-scale sediment resuspension and dispersion related to pockmark formation and failure do not occur frequently within this field, and (2) pockmarks can persevere in a dynamic estuarine setting that exhibits minimal modern fluid venting. Although pockmarks are conventionally thought to be long-lived features maintained by a combination of fluid venting and minimal sediment accumulation, this suggests that other mechanisms may be equally active in maintaining such irregular seafloor morphology. One such mechanism could be upwelling within pockmarks induced by near-bed currents.     

Oxygen and carbon stable isotope tracers of Weddell Sea water masses: new data and some paleoceanographic implications

Stable oxygen isotopic composition of sea water and stable carbon isotopes of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) on the continental shelf in the southern Weddell Sea are presented. Using the stations sampled during the summer 1995 two sections can be constructed, one closely parallel to the ice shelf edge and the other perpendicular to the upper continental slope. Generally, δ¹⁸O values clearly separate between different shelf water masses depending on the content of meteoric meltwater added during melting of glacial ice. Extrapolation of the mixing line between the cores of High Salinity Shelf Water (HSSW) and supercooled Ice Shelf Water (ISW) reveals δ¹⁸O values of the glacial ice of −27‰, whereas extrapolation of the mixing line between the δ¹⁸O values of the most-saline HSSW and lowest temperature ISW results in δ¹⁸O values of −34‰ for glacial ice. These values point to an origin of meltwater from below the ice shelf, where ice is less depleted in ¹⁸O, since deep beneath the ice shelf close to the grounding line, values may reach −40‰. If values between −34 and −27‰ are used as δ¹⁸O end member values for glacial ice, the amount of meltwater from the ice shelf that adds to the formation of ISW off the Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf ranges from 0.2 to 0.8%, in agreement with previous studies based on δ¹⁸O and ⁴He. Carbon isotopic fractionation due to gas exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean at cold temperatures results in Δδ¹³C_DIC values of 0.20±0.17‰ for Weddell Sea Deep Water, the water mass that ventilates the global abyssal ocean, typically defined as Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). This confirms the low end of the range estimated previously (0.2–0.4‰), and thus corroborates the dominance of biology in shaping the deep and bottom water δ¹³C signal. It has been hypothesized that different modes of glacial/interglacial Antarctic bottom water formation may be separated by different stable isotopic compositions of deep-sea foraminiferal calcite. Here I show that differences between Δδ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values of HSSW and ISW, both of which contribute to bottom water formation today, are too small to be resolved in deep and bottom water masses. Therefore, glacial/interglacial changes in relative proportions of these water masses in Antarctic deep and bottom water cannot be separated by stable isotopes of fossil benthic foraminiferal calcite.     

南海中建海域麻坑发育特征及成因机制

海底麻坑在圈定潜在的天然气水合物发育区和指示海底地质灾害方面都具有重要意义。基于南海中建海域的高密度三维地震资料,采用自动追踪技术对研究区海底地貌特征进行了刻画,发现了众多形态各异、大小不一的麻坑,可分为圆形麻坑、椭圆形麻坑、拉长形麻坑、新月形麻坑和复合型麻坑等5类。中建海域的海底麻坑主要发育在海底地形坡折的位置,成群、成带分布,在地形平坦的位置麻坑不发育。影响中建海域麻坑形成的因素主要有火山活动、断裂活动、水合物分解、海底底流等。引起中建海域海底形成麻坑的流体主要有4种,分别是火山热液、天然气水合物分解的气体、沿断裂向上运移的深部油气及火山热液与天然气水合物分解气体的混合。     

Microalgal Communities of the Sea Ice, Ice-Covered and Ice-Free Waters of Wood Bay (Ross Sea, Antarctica) During the Austral Summer 1993 – 94

Abstract. During the austral summer 1993 – 94, microalgal density and biomass were investigated in the sea ice, in the underlying water column, in the melt water and during the formation of the sea ice. Of the 96 taxa identified, 59 were diatoms and 32 were dinoflagellates. Among the remaining five species, Pseudopleurochloris antarctica  was very abundant both in the sea ice and in the ice-free waters. Cell densities and biomass of microalgae were higher in the bottom of the sea ice and during the formation of the ice than in the seawater, and diatoms were the dominant group at higher microalgal biomass. Among these, Entomoneis kufferathii , Chaetoceros dichaeta and Fragilariopsis species were the most common taxa.     

Late Quaternary growth and decay of the Svalbard/Barents Sea ice sheet and paleoceanographic evolution in the adjacent Arctic Ocean

 The paleoceanography in the Nordic seas was characterized by apparently repeated switching on and off of Atlantic water advection. In contrast, a continous influx of Atlantic waters probably occurred along the northern Barents Sea margin during the last 150 ka. Temporary ice-free conditions enhanced by subsurface Atlantic water advection and coastal polynyas accelerated the final ice sheet build-up during glacial times. The virtually complete dissolution of biogenic calcite during interglacial intervals was controlled mainly by CO₂-rich bottom waters and oxidation of higher levels of marine organic carbon and indicates intensive Atlantic water inflow and a stable ice margin. Received: 25 February 1997 / Revision received: 4 March 1998     

Pockmark-like depressions near the Goliat hydrocarbon field,Barents Sea: Morphology and genesis

Pockmarks are observed worldwide along the continental margins and are inferred to be indicators of fluid expulsion. In the present study, we have analysed multibeam bathymetry and 2D/3D seismic data from the south-western Barents Sea, in relation to gas hydrate stability field and sediment type, to examine pockmark genesis. Seismic attributes of the sediments at and beneath the seafloor have been analysed to study the factors related to pockmark formation. The seabed depths in the study area are just outside the methane hydrate stability field, but the presence of higher order hydrocarbon gases such as ethane and/or propane in the expelled fluids may cause localised gas hydrate formation. The selective occurrence of pockmarks in regions of specific seabed sediment types indicates that their formation is more closely related to the type of seabed sediment than the source path of fluid venting such as faults. The presence of high acoustic backscatter amplitudes at the centre of the pockmarks indicates harder/coarser sediments, likely linked to removal of soft material. The pockmarks show high seismic reflection amplitudes along their fringes indicating deposition of carbonates precipitated from upwelling fluids. High seismic amplitude gas anomalies underlying the region away from the pockmarks indicate active fluid flow from hydrocarbon source rocks beneath, which is blocked by overlying less permeable formations. In areas of consolidated sediments, the upward flow is limited to open fault locations, while soft sediment areas allow diffused flow of fluids and hence formation of pockmarks over a wider region, through removal of fine-grained material.