Crustal deformation in northern Central America

Evaluation of the seismic moment tensor for earthquakes on plate boundary is a standard procedure to determine the relative velocity of plates, which controls the seismic deformation rate predicted from the slip on a single fault. The moment tensor is also decomposed into an isotropic and a deviatoric part to discover the relationship between the average strain rate and the relative velocity between two plates. We utilize this procedure to estimate the rates of deformation in northern Central America where plate boundaries are seismically well defined. Four different tectonic environments are considered for modelling of the plate motions. The deformation rates obtained here compare well with those predicted from the plate motions models and are in good agreement with actual observations. Deformation rates on faults are increasingly being used to estimate earthquake recurrence from information on fault slip rate and more on how we can incorporate our current understanding into seismic hazard analyses.     

A nonlinear Lagrangian particle model for grains assemblies including grain relative rotations

We formulate a discrete Lagrangian model for a set of interacting grains, which is purely elastic. The considered degrees of freedom for each grain include placement of barycenter and rotation. Further, we limit the study to the case of planar systems. A representative grain radius is introduced to express the deformation energy to be associated to relative displacements and rotations of interacting grains. We distinguish inter-grains elongation/compression energy from inter-grains shear and rotations energies, and we consider an exact finite kinematics in which grain rotations are independent of grain displacements. The equilibrium configurations of the grain assembly are calculated by minimization of deformation energy for selected imposed displacements and rotations at the boundaries. Behaviours of grain assemblies arranged in regular patterns, without and with defects, and similar mechanical properties are simulated. The values of shear, rotation, and compression elastic moduli are varied to investigate the shapes and thicknesses of the layers where deformation energy, relative displacement, and rotations are concentrated. It is found that these concentration bands are close to the boundaries and in correspondence of grain voids. The obtained results question the possibility of introducing a first gradient continuum models for granular media and justify the development of both numerical and theoretical methods for including frictional, plasticity, and damage phenomena in the proposed model.     

辉长岩部分熔融实验及地质学意义

利用高温高压多功能三轴实验装置对四川省攀枝花辉长岩进行了动态和静态部分熔融实验研究,实验的围压为450～800MPa,温度区间为900～1 200℃.实验表明,差应力对辉长岩动态部分熔融程度有一定影响,初始熔体主要分布在不同矿物的颗粒边界和三联点,变形影响熔体分布,变形与辉长岩韵律层具有一定成因联系.本文为熔体对岩石流变学行为影响提供了实验约束依据.     

Late Quaternary and current deformation in the western Tunka system of basins: evidence from structural geomorphology and seismology

Integrated seismological and structural geomorphological studies of the western Tunka system of basins in the southwestern Baikal rift show that the historic seismicity reflects the general Late Quaternary evolution trend of structures. Crustal deformation occurs mainly as transpression. Compression follows block boundaries and the northern mountainous borders of basins, whereas extension acts upon basin inner parts which remain in “tectonic shadow” during left-lateral strike-slip motions on W-E faults. Principal stresses inferred from earthquake mechanisms are most often a combination of horizontal NW extension and oblique or vertical compression in the basins and vertical extension with horizontal NE compression in the bordering ridges and along block boundaries. The general deformation style in the region is dominated by strike-slip faulting, and compression (shortening) dominates over extension.     

Modeling Particle Rolling Behavior by the Modified Eccentric Circle Model of DEM

This study proposes a modified eccentric circle model to simulate the rolling resistance of circle particles through the distinct element method (DEM) simulation. The proposed model contains two major concepts: eccentric circle and local rotational damping. The mass center of a circular particle is first adjusted slightly for eccentricity to provide rotational stiffness. Local rotational damping is adopted to dissipate energy in the rotational direction. These associated material parameters can be obtained easily from the rolling behavior of one rod. This study verifies the proposed model with the repose angle tests of chalk rod assemblies, and the simulated results were satisfactory. Simulations using other existing models were also conducted for comparison, showing that the proposed model achieved better results. A landslide model test was further simulated, and this simulation agreed with both the failure pattern and the sliding process. In conclusion, particle rolling simulation using the proposed model appears to approach the actual particle trajectory, making it useful for various applications.     

The effect of deformation on the TitaniQ geothermobarometer: an experimental study

We performed high strain (up to 47 %) axial compression experiments on natural quartz single crystals with added rutile powder (TiO₂) and ~0.2 wt% H₂O to investigate the effects of deformation on the titanium-in-quartz (TitaniQ) geothermobarometer. One of the objectives was to study the relationships between different deformation mechanisms and incorporation of Ti into recrystallized quartz grains. Experiments were performed in a Griggs-type solid-medium deformation apparatus at confining pressures of 1.0–1.5 GPa and temperatures of 800–1,000 °C, at constant strain rates of 1 × 10^?6 or 1 × 10^?7 s^?1. Mobility of Ti in the fluid phase and saturation of rutile at grain boundaries during the deformation experiments are indicated by precipitation of secondary rutile in cracks and along the grain boundaries of newly recrystallized quartz grains. Microstructural analysis by light and scanning electron microscopy (the latter including electron backscatter diffraction mapping of grain misorientations) shows that the strongly deformed quartz single crystals contain a wide variety of deformation microstructures and shows evidence for subgrain rotation (SGR) and grain boundary migration recrystallization (GBMR). In addition, substantial grain growth occurred in annealing experiments after deformation. The GBMR and grain growth are evidence of moving grain boundaries, a microstructure favored by high temperatures. Electron microprobe analysis shows no significant increase in Ti content in recrystallized quartz grains formed by SGR or by GBMR, nor in grains grown by annealing. This result indicates that neither SGR nor moving grain boundaries during GBMR and grain growth are adequate processes to facilitate re-equilibration of the Ti content in experimentally deformed quartz crystals at the investigated conditions. More generally, our results suggest that exchange of Ti in quartz at low H₂O contents (which may be realistic for natural deformation conditions) is still not fully understood. Thus, the application of the TitaniQ geothermobarometer to deformed metamorphic rocks at low fluid contents may not be as straightforward as previously thought and requires further research.     

Role of particle crushing on particle kinematics and shear banding in granular materials

The paper provides an in-depth exploration of the role of particle crushing on particle kinematics and shear banding in sheared granular materials. As a two-dimensional approximation, a crushable granular material may be represented by an assembly of irregularly shaped polygons to include shape diversity of realistic granular materials. Particle assemblies are subjected to biaxial shearing under flexible boundary conditions. With increasing percentage of crushed particles, mesoscale deformation becomes increasingly unstable. Fragmented deformation patterns within the granular assemblies are unable to form stable and distinct shear bands. This is confirmed by the sparsity of large fluctuating velocities in highly crushable assemblies. Without generating distinct shear bands, deformation patterns and failure modes of a highly crushable assembly are similar to those of loose particle assemblies, which are regarded as diffuse deformation. High degrees of spatial association amongst the kinematical quantities confirm the key role that non-affine deformation and particle rotation play in the generation of shear bands. Therefore, particle kinematical quantities can be used to predict the onset and subsequent development of shear zones, which are generally marked by increased particle kinematic activity, such as intense particle rotation and high granular temperature. Our results indicate that shear band thickness increases, and its speed of development slows down, with increasing percentage of crushed particles. As particles crush, spatial force correlation becomes weaker, indicating a more diffuse nature of force transmission across particle contacts.     

Micro-fracture instabilities in granular solids

We study the aspect of unstable behavior (like strain localization bands) in elastic solids as a consequence of micro-fracturing. A two-scale approach of computational homogenization is considered. The macroscopic behavior is investigated by finite element computations on a unit cell. At the micro-level, we consider a granular structure with elastic grains. The inter-granular boundaries are modeled with cohesive laws, friction and unilateral contact. We show that decohesion between grains gives rise to macro-instabilities, indicated by the loss of ellipticity, typical for deformation localization bands. The relation between the microscopic softening on inter-granular boundaries and the onset of macro-instabilities is studied through numerical examples. The influence of the cohesive law and friction parameters is analyzed. For periodic distributions of granular structures, we prove the loss of periodicity by failure and the corresponding size dependence effect in the homogenized response. We present numerical examples of bifurcation of solutions for granular cell structures and of particular solutions specific to elementary volumes with periodic cell distribution. Size dependence appears in the unstable regime and is strongly influenced by cohesion and friction parameters.     

地球表层运动和变形的GPS描述

利用IERS所公布的分在全球各大构造板块上的 6 5 7个GPS、SLR和VLBI连续观测站在ITRF框架下的速度场资料 ,采用刚体板块运动 +板块整体均匀应变 +板块内局部不均匀应变的变形分析模型 ,研究了全球各主要板块的运动和变形。结果表明板块的整体变形在统计上均不显著。在一级近似上板块间表现出来的整体相对运动显著 ,根据这些运动参数定量研究了板块边界的相对运动的大小和性质。认为地球的双重不对称变形可能主要表现为南北、东西两半球所含的板块边界的运动方式不同所致。板块内的局部不均匀变形明显 ,为板块内部可能应划分成次一级的活动地块提供了佐证。由于观测点分布的密度和均匀性不足 ,本文未能就板内不均匀变形作进一步的深入讨论。     

Models for convergence, subduction and back-arc development: Plate motions, boundary forces, and horizontal temperature gradients: Implications for the driving mechanism

Largely because of the wide variety of observational constraints which must be satisfied, the search for a viable driving mechanism is perhaps the most perplexing problem related to plate tectonics. The mechanism must be compatible with the rigid behavior of lithospheric plates, and with a wide range of plate sizes, shapes and motions. It must be consistent with complex configurations of plate boundaries and equally complex boundary interactions, such as the destruction of ridges at subduction zones. The mechanism must produce steady-state relative and absolute plate motions which persist for tens of millions of years, but must also account for sudden dramatic changes. Finally, the plate driving mechanism must be consistent with the non-Newtonian properties of olivine and with the fabrics of upper mantle peridotites.Mounting evidence suggests that plate motions result from forces associated with plate boundaries and that the principal resisting force is drag at the base of the lithosphere, particularly beneath continents Several investigators have suggested that gravitational forces acting on thermally-induced, lateral density variations in the upper mantle are the principal driving forces for plate tectonics. If so, plate motions are ultimately controlled by the temperature distribution in the upper mantle, and plate tectonics represents a state of dynamic equilibrium in which plate motions are both the cause and the consequence of temperature and density variations in the mantle. This concept requires that average absolute plate velocities be predictable from the characteristics of individual plates, and that plates tend to move down horizontal temperature gradients.A simple linear relation which includes contributions from ridge push (RP), slab pull (SP), trench suction (TS) and continental drag (CD): (cm/y) = (2.6 ± 0.4) + (4.8 ± 1.8) RP + (14.3 ± 1.7) SP +(3.5 ± 2.5) TS−(5.1 ±0.7) CD predicts plate velocities with an rms error of 0.44 cm/y, and a correlation coefficient of 0.98. That plate velocities can be accurately predicted from their own boundary configurations and proportions of continental lithosphere is strong evidence that plate motions result from negative buoyancy forces associated with plate boundaries.     

施力方式对半地堑反转构造变形特征影响的物理模拟实验研究

根据断层的上下盘施力方式的不同设计了两组实验,以探讨在刚性边界条件下的半地堑反转构造的变形特点。实验结果表明(1)在自由边界基底驱动下形成的盆地反转规模较大,刚性边界处会沿原断层发生反转,而在自由端断层不会反转,但会形成深部低角度逆冲滑脱断层;(2)在刚性下盘侧向驱动下很小的挤压量就会形成盆地的反转,但是反转的范围较小,随着原设边界断层的角度由小到大,盆地内的断层会发生由刚性边界处单侧发生反转到两侧边界断层发生近对称式反转的变化;(3)实验结果证实了辽河坳陷西部凹陷反转构造是在刚性下盘为主动盘挤压变形下形成的。     

亚洲东部“大三角”地震构造区的周边和深部动力环境

亚洲东部存在一个巨大的三角形地震构造区域,大体上,喜马拉雅山脉、帕米尔—天山—阿尔泰山—贝加尔和东经105°线是它的3个边界,主要覆盖中国和蒙古国西部众多高原、山脉及山间盆地。三角区内现今构造活动和地震广泛强烈,地壳破碎,显示不均匀的块体边界和块内变形;区外基本上是稳定的刚性陆块,地震很少,变形较弱,处于整体缓慢运动之中。这个宽阔的板内变形区起源于印度、菲律宾海—西太平洋和欧亚三大板块之间的动力作用以及深部地幔流的影响。向北快速运动的印度次大陆已近水平地插入到西藏板块下,沿喜马拉雅弧产生多种运动和变形,并向亚洲内部远距离地扩散。沿东经95°～100°,向北的地壳运动向东和东南方向偏转,阻截了喜马拉雅弧东端的北向运动;而在喜马拉雅弧西端,帕米尔继续向北挤进中亚,受天山—阿尔泰山—贝加尔一线西北側稳定地壳的限制,扩散的变形被中国、蒙古、俄罗斯边境地区一系列EW向和NW向的老断层吸收并在它们的西端终止。菲律宾海—西太平洋向欧亚大陆的消减-俯冲导致沿海沟-岛弧的漫长而狭窄的地震带,但对亚洲大陆的水平挤压较小,未能阻挡亚洲大陆东部向东移动。其部分原因可能是俯冲板片受到来自欧亚大陆下的ES向地幔流的推挤,这个ES向地幔流与来自印度下面的N向地幔流在西藏中部汇合并向东偏转,在大尺度上与GPS观测到的地表移动图像一致。     

Mechanical properties of granular materials: A variational approach to grain‐scale simulations

The mechanical properties of cohesionless granular materials are evaluated from grain‐scale simulations. A three‐dimensional pack of spherical grains is loaded by incremental displacements of its boundaries. The deformation is described as a sequence of equilibrium configurations. Each configuration is characterized by a minimum of the total potential energy. This minimum is computed using a modification of the conjugate gradient algorithm. Our simulations capture the nonlinear, path‐dependent behavior of granular materials observed in experiments. Micromechanical analysis provides valuable insight into phenomena such as hysteresis, strain hardening and stress‐induced anisotropy. Estimates of the effective bulk modulus, obtained with no adjustment of material parameters, are in agreement with published experimental data. The model is applied to evaluate the effects of hydrate dissociation in marine sediments. Weakening of the sediment is quantified as a reduction in the effective elastic moduli. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

散粒体材料间接触面力学特性的单剪试验研究

在清华大学土与结构接触面循环加载剪切试验机的基础上, 研制了可进行两种散粒体间接触面试验的叠环式单剪试验系统,并对糯扎渡高心墙堆石坝坝料的接触特性进行了系统的试验研究。结果表明,两种散粒体材料间接触面的强度包线为其单相材料强度下的包线。当达到破坏强度后,在接触界面附近会产生集中的“刚塑性”接触面剪切变形,其位置发生在强度最薄弱处。两种散粒体间的接触变形特性可通过刚塑性模型来描述。     

0.1GPa块状榴辉岩脱水部分熔融:局部熔融体系和温度的影响

选取了湖北英山东冲河含有含水矿物黑云母和角闪石的退变质榴辉岩块状样品, 在0.1 GPa的恒压下, 分别进行了750、800、850、900℃四个温阶、恒温加热4 h的开放体系的脱水部分熔融实验.熔融从含水矿物的脱水暗化开始, 850℃时出现玻璃质熔体.镜下观察显示, 熔体主要分布在后成合晶边界、熔融程度最高的样品顶端、石英颗粒边界及裂隙内部这3个局部熔融体系内.受局部体系内部物质组成的控制, 同一温阶、不同体系内的熔体成分变化很大, 呈基性、中性和酸性.随着温度的升高, 同一体系内的熔体成分均向酸性方向演化.该实验结果表明, 恒压下局部熔融体系内物质组成的不同和温度的变化是影响熔体成分的2个重要因素, 这为理解榴辉岩块状样品的脱水部分熔融行为及与其他基性变质岩类的熔融行为进行对比提供了实验依据.      

柴达木盆地北缘反S形褶皱冲断带变形机制的物理模拟研究

阿尔金断裂走滑变形的侧向传递十分有限,难以解释柴达木盆地北缘反S形褶皱冲断带的形成。本文设计的一组具有不同性质基底条件的弧形边界砂箱实验表明:刚性块体边界形态控制了褶皱冲断带走向和构造格局,同时基底力学性质也有部分影响作用,因而可用“刚性块体弧形边界联合作用”来解释其形成,即:1)冷湖反S形褶皱冲断带的形成是赛什腾山前弧形边界与昆特依凹陷弧形边界联合作用的结果;2)鄂博梁反S形褶皱冲断带的形成是昆特依凹陷与一里坪凹陷弧形边界联合作用的结果;3)位于一里坪凹陷南侧、与阿尔金断裂左行走滑变形呈反牵引关系的褶皱冲断带则与该凹陷西南侧向南西突出的弧形边界有关。     

Fluid inclusions,deformation and recrystallization in granite tectonites

An investigation has been made of the relationships between tectonic processes and fluid inclusions in quartz from variably deformed and syntectonically recrystallized granitic rocks from the Lachlan Fold Belt, eastern Australia. The quartz contains many fluid inclusions which decorate healed fractures introduced as a result of late-stage brittle deformation. The majority of small inclusions however, are associated with deformation band boundaries and deformation lamellae showing that they have been introduced during or subsequent to ductile deformation. Fluid inclusions disappear from the cores of sub-grains during recovery and before recrystallization, and new inclusions which form along sub-grain boundaries coalesce into stringers. Inclusions are eliminated from both sides of low angle boundaries showing that inclusions leak their contents either through the system of dislocations which accompanies grain interior slip, or by a dissolution-condensation process whereby inclusion contents move by lattice diffusion and condense on the boundaries.     

Experimental deformation of a synthetic dunite at high temperature and pressure. I. Mechanical behavior, optical microstructure and deformation mechanism

We have performed a series of 27 deformation experiments on a very dry synthetic dunite, using the Griggs solid medium apparatus. Strain rates ranged from 1 × 10 ⁴ to 1 × 10 ⁷ sec ¹, temperatures varied from 1100° to 1300 °C, and the confining pressure was maintained at 10 or (more usually) 15 kbar. MACOR^IM, a commercially available, anhydrous, machinable glass ceramic with a low melting point, was used in many of the experiments. We find that strength measurements performed using macor as a confining medium are similar to results obtained using sodium chloride as the confining solid. Tests performed in undried sample assemblies using air-dried dunite specimens resulted in creep strengths greater than those found in any earlier studies except those of Post (1973. 1977). A single test on a sample for which both sample and assembly were dried at a temperature sufficiently high to drive off any adsorbed water resulted in a creep strength comparable to that determined by Post (1973, 1977) for very dry Mt. Burnett dunite. Despite our experimental difficulties, we are led to believe that our synthetic dunite exhibits mechanical behavior consistent with that determined in other experimental studies in which natural dunites and peridotites were used. Furthermore, we conclude that dry dunite is very probably as strong as the oft-disputed results of Post earlier indicated. Finally, we show that the optical textures of our highly recrystallized experimental specimens are essentially identical to naturally produced porphyroclastic textures and that the deformation mechanism in both the experimental and natural specimens is probably dislocation creep with recovery by dynamic recrystallization.     

The migration of fluid-filled grain boundaries in recrystallizing synthetic bischofite: first results of in-situ high-pressure, high-temperature deformation experiments in transmitted light

The effect of fluids on recrystallization behaviour is well known; however, the detailed microscale distribution of fluid in grain boundaries and the influence of fluid on grain boundary migration are still unresolved. In this study, in‐situ deformation experiments in transmitted light microscopy were undertaken, as this allows continuous and direct observation of the whole range of processes involved in fluid‐assisted grain boundary migration. A new see‐through deformation apparatus was developed to enable the control of fluid pressure. Bischofite containing small amounts of aqueous fluid was deformed at temperatures between 50 and 90 °C, over a range of fluid pressure from 0.5 to 1 MPa, and strain rates of 5 × 10^?6 to 1 × 10^?4 s^?1. The rates of grain boundary migration were measured at different temperatures and strain rates. Detailed observations during and after the deformation illustrate the evolution of migrating fluid‐filled grain boundaries and show that the incorporation of fluids from inclusions as well as their pinch‐off is dependent on the grain boundary velocity, the thickness of the grain boundary and the size and shape of the inclusions. Direct evidence is presented for the contraction of the grain boundary fluids into isolated inclusions after equilibrium conditions are attained.     

A lattice type model for particulate media

In this paper, a lattice-type model to simulate the micro-mechanical behaviour of particulate/granular media is presented. In this numerical model, a particulate assembly is simulated as a lattice/truss. Nodes located at contacts between a particle and its neighbours are linked by bars to each other. Each particle is represented by a lattice within its microstructure and particle interact through load transfer at the nodes. Constraints are prescribed at the nodes to describe active, deactivated and reactivated contacts. When a particulate assembly develops into a mechanism (deformation with zero incremental load), further deformation is simulated through a framework that describes the kinematics of the particles (sliding, rolling and rotation of particles). This framework is formed by introducing nodes at the particle centroids and linking them with bars. Bars-linking particles with a non-sliding contact are assigned large stiffnesses relative to bars linking particles with a sliding contact. Numerical tests are conducted on two-dimensional assemblies of disks, arranged as very loose and very dense packing under simple shear loading conditions. The results concord with the results of numerical tests conducted using the discrete element method and with photoelastic experiments. Additionally, the model is applied to study the effects of initial imperfections caused by particles with low elastic modulus. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.