固化淤泥压缩特性的试验研究

淤泥固化技术在国内已经进入到工程应用阶段,明确固化淤泥的压缩特性对于指导淤泥固化工程的设计具有重要意义。通过单因素试验方案对不同初始含水率、不同水泥添加量、不同养护龄期的固化淤泥的压缩特性进行了研究。结果发现,固化淤泥压缩特性的最大特点是存在固结屈服应力,当荷载小于固结屈服应力时固化淤泥的压缩性非常小,而固化淤泥屈服之后的压缩性是屈服前压缩性的20倍以上,并且远大于未处理淤泥的压缩特性。淤泥本身是高压缩性的土,固化处理以后变为中等压缩性和低压缩性的土体。固化淤泥的固结屈服应力随水泥量增加线性增大,龄期越长、含水率越低固结屈服应力越大。固化淤泥的这种在固结屈服应力处发生突变的压缩特性和天然沉积结构性土类似,可以用双对数压缩模式来表示固化淤泥的这种压缩特性。     

The Mechanical Behaviour of a Pyroclastic Rock: Yield Strength and “Destructuration” Effects

Summary   A research programme on the mechanical behaviour of a homogenous volcanic tuff found in the centre of the city of Naples (Italy) was carried out at the University of Naples a few years ago. Isotropic and drained triaxial tests were performed in a very wide range of confining pressures (up to 60 MPa). After presenting the stress-strain curve pattern and the mean stress influence on the shear behaviour, the paper focuses on the definition of a strength criterion and of the yield surface for this material. Some tuff samples were subjected to isotropic compression tests up to a confining pressure approximately twice as high as the isotropic yield stress; they were subsequently unloaded and subjected to drained triaxial tests. Partial loosening of the interparticle bonds (“destructuration”) was observed. The paper also compares the mechanical behaviour of intact and “destructured” samples, emphasising the effects of the structure on strength and yield.     

Structural features and mechanical behaviour of a pyroclastic weak rock

The results of an extensive programme of laboratory testing on intact and reconstituted samples of a pyroclastic weak rock from the volcanic complex of the Colli Albani (Central Italy) are presented. The deposit is known as Pozzolana Nera and may be assimilated to a bonded coarse grained material. The nature of bonds and the micro‐structural features were examined by means of diffractometry, optical and electron microscopy. As bonds are made of the same constituents of grains and aggregates of grains, bond deterioration and particles breakage upon loading are indistinguishable features of the mechanical behaviour. The testing programme consisted mainly of one‐dimensional and drained and undrained triaxial compression tests in a wide range of confining pressures up to 58 MPa. As confining stress increases, the mechanical behaviour of the material changes from brittle and dilatant to ductile and contractant; for both brittle and ductile behaviour failure is associated with the formation of shear surfaces separating the sample in several parts at the end of test. The experimental stress–dilatancy relationships are compared with the classical stress–dilatancy theories for a purely frictional material and for a material with friction and cohesion between particles. The analysis of the data indicates that peak strength results from the interplay between degradation of inter‐particle bonds, increasing friction between particles and increasing rate of dilation. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Son, Ltd.     

Stress-strain properties of Belfast estuarine clay

The extensive area of Postglacial soft silty clay at the head of Belfast Lough has caused many engineering problems in the central Belfast area. The clay is usually considered unsuitable as a bearing stratum, and consequently little attention has been paid in the past to detailed examination of its stress-strain behaviour. However, in the light of recent advances in foundation design based on clearer understanding of the response of soft clay to applied loading, tests have recently been carried out on typical samples of Belfast clay to achieve a more fundamental insight into the behaviour of the material. The paper describes triaxial tests on hand-trimmed samples of the clay and examines the behaviour with respect to yield and failure criteria, porewater pressure generation during shear, dependence of strength on direction and rate of testing, and “elastic” properties of the soil. The results show that the clay is lightly over-consolidated in the field, and that its behaviour is much more brittle, elastic and anisotropic than is suggested by routine sampling and testing procedures.     

Quantifying a critical marl thickness for vertical fracture extension using field data and numerical experiments

In fractured reservoirs characterized by low matrix permeability,fracture networks control the main fluid flow paths.However,in layered reservoirs,the vertical extension of fractures is often restricted to single layers.In this study,we explored the effect of changing marl/shale thickness on fracture extension using comprehensive field data and numerical modeling.The field data were sampled from coastal exposures of Liassic limestone-marl/shale alternations in Wales and Somerset(Bristol Channel Basin,UK).The vertical fracture traces of more than 4000 fractures were mapped in detail.Six sections were selected to represent a variety of layer thicknesses.Besides the field data also thin sections were analyzed.Numerical models of fracture extension in a two-layer limestone-marl system were based on field data and laboratory measurements of Young's moduli.The modeled principal stress magnitude σ_3 along the lithological contact was used as an indication for fracture extension through marls.Field data exhibit good correlation(R~2=0.76) between fracture extension and marl thickness,the thicker the marl layer the fewer fractures propagate through.The model results show that almost no tensile stress reaches the top of the marl layer when the marls are thicker than 30 cm.For marls that are less than 20 cm,the propagation of stress is more dependent on the stiffness of the marls.The higher the contrast between limestone and marl stiffness the lower the stress that is transmitted into the marl layer.In both model experiments and field data the critical marl thickness for fracture extension is ca.15-20 cm.This quantification of critical marl thicknesses can be used to improve predictions of fracture networks and permeability in layered rocks.Up-or downsampling methods often ignore spatially continuous impermeable layers with thicknesses that are under the detection limit of seismic data.However,ignoring these layers can lead to overestimates of the overall permeability.Therefore,the understanding of how fractures propagate and terminate through impermeable layers will help to improve the characterization of conventional reservoirs.     

Small-scale modelling of plant root systems using 3D printing,with applications to investigate the role of vegetation on earthquake-induced landslides

Vegetation has been previously proposed as a method for protecting artificial and natural slopes against shallow landslides (e.g. as may be triggered by an earthquake); however, previous research has concentrated on individual root soil interaction during shear deformation rather than the global slope behaviour due to the extreme expense and difficulty involved in conducting full-scale field tests. Geotechnical centrifuge modelling offers an opportunity to investigate in detail the engineering performance of vegetated slopes, but its application has been restricted due to the lack of availability of suitable root analogues that can repeatably replicate appropriate mechanical properties (stiffness and strength) and realistic 3D geometry. This study employed 3D printing to develop a representative and repeatable 1:10 scale model of a tree root cluster (representing roots up to 1.5 m deep at prototype scale) that can be used within a geotechnical centrifuge to investigate the response of a vegetated slope subject to earthquake ground motion. The printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic root model was identified to be highly representative of the geometry and mechanical behaviour (stiffness and strength) of real woody root systems. A programme of large direct shear tests was also performed to evaluate the additional strength provided by the root analogues within soil that is slipping and investigate the influence of various characteristics (including root area ratio (RAR), soil confining effective stress and root morphology) on this reinforcing effect. Our results show that root reinforcement is not only a function of root mechanical properties but also depends on factors including surrounding effective confining stress (resulting in depth dependency even for the same RAR), depth of the slip plane and root morphology. When subject to shear loading in soil, the tap root appeared to structurally transfer load within the root system, including to smaller and deeper roots which subsequently broke or were pulled out. Finally, the root analogues were added to model slopes subjected to earthquake ground motion in the centrifuge, where it was revealed that vegetation can substantially reduce earthquake-induced slope deformation in the soil conditions tested (76% reduction on crest permanent settlement during slippage). Both the realistic 3D geometry and highly simplified root morphologies, as characterised mechanically by the shear tests, were tested in the centrifuge which, despite exhibiting very different levels of additional strength in the shear tests, resulted in very similar responses of the slopes. This suggests that once a certain minimum level of reinforcement has been reached which will alter the deformation mechanism within the slope, further increases of root contribution (e.g. due to differences in root morphology) do not have a large further effect on improving slope stability.     

Geotechnical Characterization by In situ and Lab Tests to the Back-Analysis of a Supported Excavation in Metro do Porto

This paper summarizes the geotechnical characterization conducted for the design and subsequent analysis of a strutted excavation in “Metro do Porto”. This region is geologically dominated by heterogeneous weathered granite masses with deep residual soil profiles. Local saprolitic soils exhibit, by their nature, a particular behavior characterized by very sensitive and weak relic micro-structures, due to their specific genesis. This study has included the interpretation of a significant volume of in situ test results, triaxial tests over undisturbed samples and monitoring data, giving rise to specific correlations between testing and design parameters. Real time monitoring enabled a back-analysis by FEM of a well instrumented section of the strutted excavation, which was calibrated taking into account the derived correlations and the deformability behavior of this specific geotechnical ambient. This geomaterial, although revealing very high initial stiffness values (for very small strain ranges) has shown low stiffness values for “medium to high” strain levels, reflecting a singular strong non-linearity in the stress-strain behavior.     

Experimental Assessment of the Stress–Strain Behaviour of Leighton Buzzard Sand for the Calibration of a Constitutive Model

A number of constitutive models are nowadays implemented in numerical codes which simulate the stress–strain behaviour of soil from very small to large strain. In this paper, the mechanical behaviour of Leighton Buzzard sand (grade E), used worldwide for physical modelling, has been thoroughly characterized by laboratory testing along several stress paths. Tests were aimed at calibrating a constitutive model, that allows considering stiffness nonlinearities in a wide range of strains, in the framework of isotropically hardening plasticity. As a validation, the results of dynamic centrifuge tests on a layer of the same sand were compared with finite element predictions.     

软粘土的各向异性和小应变条件下的本构模型(ASM)

以能量方程为基础推导出各向异性和小应变条件下弹塑性的本构方程,并将屈服面与修正桥模型和试验测得的屈服面进行了对比,表明新的屈服面比修正剑桥模型更接近试验结果,采用从初始应力到状态边界面的距离为参数的系数来修正硬化准则以模拟土体小应谱条件下的应力－应变特征。将新的本构模型编入有限元程序,对小应变试验进行了计算分析,计算结果表明,新的模型比修正剑桥模型能更好地反映土体的主要力学特性。     

Performance of geosynthetic-reinforced granular piles in soft clays: Model tests and numerical analysis

The laboratory model tests and numerical analyses have been performed on reinforced granular piles installed in very soft clay. The granular piles were reinforced with geosynthetic in the form of vertical encasement, horizontal strips and combined vertical-horizontal reinforcement. The short term-displacement control model tests were carried out either only a granular pile loaded or with an entire area loaded. The laboratory results in the form of vertical load intensity-settlement behaviour were compared with that obtained from FEM software, PLAXIS 3D. The results indicated significant improvement in ultimate load intensity and stiffness of treated ground due to inclusion of geosynthetic.     

Analogue and numerical modeling of normal fault patterns produced due to slip along a detachment zone

In this paper, we investigate normal fault patterns produced by the sliding motion along a gently dipping normal fault by using analogue model tests and numerical modeling. The motivation for this study was offered by microseismic test data that indicate the existence of an active low-angle shear zone at a depth of 9–11 km in the extensional region of high seismic activity of the Gulf of Corinth (Greece). Both modeling techniques seem to support the hypothesis that the system of high-angle normal faults that are responsible for the final asymmetrical graben formation initiate at the tip of the active basal detachment nearest to the free surface. The normal faults propagate upwards with progressive sliding of the inclined basal plane, resulting in a first phase of symmetrical graben configuration that is delimited by a main synthetic fault and an antithetic fault forming a Rankine zone. Subsequent sliding on the inclined base induces a family of secondary antithetic normal faults, which are responsible for the asymmetry of the failure pattern and the diffusive character of deformation in that area. Shear deformation is more intense and localized along the synthetic normal fault than along the antithetic faults. Elaboration on the analogue test results has led to the phenomenological relations among four main parameters that describe the geometry of grabens, namely, (i) the width and (ii) the maximum subsidence of the graben, (iii) the dip angles of the conjugate normal faults, and (iv) the amount of sliding along the low-angle normal fault. However, analogue models do not produce the system of synthetic faults that is observed in the Gulf of Corinth. The effects of both friction angle variation along the detachment base and of the constitutive behavior of the model material on the configuration of the final structural pattern were also studied with a series of numerical continuum models. It was found that (a) the fault pattern of the Gulf of Corinth may be reproduced with either a strain-softening material with low elastic modulus or a constant strength material, and (b) two consecutive grabens, such as those of Gulfs of Corinth and Evia, may also be reproduced by an appropriate combination of variation of dip and frictional properties along the hypothesized detachment zone.     

Laboratory modelling of shear behaviour of soft joints under constant normal stiffness conditions

Shear behaviour of regular sawtooth rock joints produced from casting plaster are investigated under constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions. Test results obtained in this investigation are also compared with the constant normal load (CNL) tests. It is observed that the peak shear stress obtained under CNL conditions always underestimates the peak shear stress corresponding to the CNS condition. Plots of shear stress against normal stress show that a nonlinear (curved) strength envelope is acceptable for soft rock joints subjected to a CNS condition, in comparison with the linear or bilinear envelopes often proposed for a CNL condition. Models proposed by Patton (1966) and Barton (1973) have also been considered for the predictions of peak shear stress of soft joints under CNS conditions. Although Patton's model is appropriate for low asperity angles, it overestimates the shear strength in the low to medium normal stress range at higher asperity angles. In contrast, while Barton's model is realistic for the CNL condition, it seems to be inappropriate for modelling the shear behaviour of soft joints under CNS conditions. The effect of infill material on the shear behaviour of the model joints is also investigated, and it is found that a small thickness of bentonite infill reduces the peak stress significantly. The peak shear stress almost approached that of the shear strength of infill when the infill thickness to asperity height ratio (t/a) reached 1.40. This paper also introduces an original, empirical shear strength envelope to account for the change in normal stress and surface degradation during CNS shearing. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

Trace fossils of a cyclic chalk-marl succession; the upper Maastrichtian Rørdal Member, Denmark

Trace fossils from an upper Maastrichtian cyclic chalk-marl succession, the Rørdal Member, exposed in the Rørdal quarry, Denmark, are analysed in order to test whether the changes in substrate lithology exerted any control over the ichnodiversity, tiering complexity, and density of the infauna. The cyclicity is interpreted as caused by orbital changes within the Milankovitch frequency band. The carbonate content varies between 71 and 82 weight% in the marl and 82-92 weight% in the chalk beds. The material is based on 19 samples collected from six chalk and marl beds. The investigated bedding-normal sample surfaces vary in area between 29 and 155 cm². Eight ichnogenera and two undetermined ichnogenera are recognised. The member is characterised by three ichnofabrics (A, B and C). The ichnofabric analysis is based on texture and internal structure of the sediments resulting from bioturbation. Ichnofabric A is found only in chalk samples and shows a poor preservation of trace fossils, whereas ichnofabric C is found in a few chalk and all marl samples and comprises a very dense, diverse and well preserved ichnofauna representing a high tiering complexity. Ichnofabric B represents an intermediate situation between ichnofabrics A and C and occurs in chalk samples immediately adjacent to marl beds. The observed changes in ichnofabrics between chalk and marl are related to the amount of clay in the samples and the differences in the occurrence of trace fossils are interpreted as due to differences in the visibility of traces between chalk and marl and not due to differences in ecological stress upon the endobenthic community of the two lithologies. The study thus provides an excellent example of how the effect of taphonomic factors may give a misleading and biased impression of apparent differences in the endobenthic community between chalk and marl.     

Experimental and numerical study of the damage process in RC beam-column sub-assemblages during a progressive collapse scenario

In the present paper, the collapse resistance of reinforced concrete (RC) beam-column sub-assemblages subjected to a middle column removal scenario is investigated on the basis of experimental tests and numerical calculations. For the experimental programme, three one-third scale substructures are designed with two types of longitudinal steel rebar to observe the influence of rebar detailing on the global structural behaviour. The structure under consideration is composed of a two-bay beam, and a middle column lies on two sliding-pin connections to prevent a catenary action mechanism. A digital image correlation (DIC) technique was employed with the experiments to observe the growth of cracks. In addition, numerical simulations using the finite element method (FEM) were also done. The Denoual-Forquin-Hild (DFH) anisotropic damage model is used to simulate the behaviour of the concrete, whereas a plasticity model is used for the steel rebars. The numerical simulations are compared with experimental data in terms of structural yield strength, change in stiffness and crack propagation, and better agreement is observed when a weakening of the concrete due to beam stirrups is taken into account.     

On the time-dependent behaviour of glacial sediments: a geotechnical approach

Soft sediments can deform under both changes in stress and changes in strain rate, as well as during sustained loading (e.g. creep). In glacial conditions, soft subglacial sediments can contribute to glacier movements, and when the ice/sediment system is coupled, the rate-sensitivity of the sub-layer can affect the velocity of the glacier. These issues have been the object of studies by several geologists. In parallel, the effects of time and strain rate on the behaviour of soils have been studied for many years by geotechnical engineers, to estimate the long-term performance of ground structures. This paper applies the knowledge acquired in soil mechanics to a geological problem: results on two glacial sediments of different origins, obtained from advanced geotechnical laboratory tests, are presented and analysed in the light of recent advances in soil mechanics. Independently of time effects, the test data show that the pre-failure behaviour is not elastic but that the sediments develop plastic strains before reaching their peak strength, with the stiffness gradually degrading. Results from tests performed with variable strain rates suggest that the time-dependent (viscous) behaviour of the sediments may be governed by their mineralogy, in particular the presence of plastic fines. The viscous behaviour observed in the plastic tills seems to affect the pre-failure behaviour only, for example the yield surface, stiffness, strength, but the criteria of failure, e.g. critical or residual angle of failure are found to be constant and independent of strain rate. The test data also suggest that the viscous behaviour may be related to stress level, being more prevalent at low stresses. These results, obtained under laboratory-controlled conditions, over a large range of strains, pre- and post-peak strength, are a necessary step towards developing constitutive models for subglacial sediments rigorously. It is only after this has been achieved that such models should be implemented in finite element code to analyse ice/sediment systems, with the aim to understand glacier movements better.     

损伤破裂砂岩单轴蠕变特性试验研究

深部岩体工程处于高应力环境中,开挖破裂后的工程岩体在持续的高地应力作用下具有很强的时间效应,深入研究其峰后蠕变特性,具有重要的理论和实际应用价值。先采用RMT-150B型岩石力学试验系统对完整岩样进行单轴峰前屈服、峰后破裂卸载试验,制备出具有不同破裂损伤程度的峰前屈服、峰后破裂的损伤岩样;再采用RLW-2000型微机伺服岩石三轴流变仪对其进行单轴蠕变试验,研究其单轴蠕变力学特性。研究结果表明：损伤岩样波速与完整岩样相比,均出现了不同程度的降低;损伤岩样各级应力水平下,瞬时应变量均是随着应力水平的增加而逐步增加,且均符合线性函数关系;相同应力水平下,峰后破裂损伤岩样瞬时应变明显大于峰前屈服损伤岩样;各级应力水平下,总体上各蠕变量随着应力水平的增加而逐步提高,且均符合指数函数关系;相同应力水平下,峰后破裂损伤岩样蠕变量明显大于峰前屈服损伤岩样,且随着荷载水平的进一步提高,两者差异程度增加;损伤岩样各瞬时变形模量随着应力水平的增加均逐步提高,两者之间符合线性函数关系;各应力水平下对应的瞬时变形模量存在明显差异,岩样损伤程度越高,瞬时变形模量越低;各损伤岩样在各级应力水平下,改进的西原模型能够较好地模拟其单轴蠕变特征。     

Economic Sampling and Extraction of Undisturbed,High Quality Samples in Normally Consolidated Lacustrine Clays Using a Large Diameter Tube

This paper describes the development, design and use of a large diameter sampling tube. High quality test specimens are essential for the investigation of mechanical properties of a soil for high risk projects and when complex and expensive testing methods are to be used. Block sampling is recommended to give the highest sample quality for clayey soils, however, extracting blocks of normally consolidated lacustrine silty clay without excessive disturbance was challenging due to the inherent structure of the soft varved silty clay and difficulty in maintaining K_o conditions, as well as no vertical strain, in the sample. A new sample tube, with an inner diameter of 196 mm, an area ratio of 4% and an outer cutting-edge angle of 11° was designed to offer a larger cross sectional area than conventional thin walled sampling tubes, to provide the necessary side support and to prevent water ingress at the sides of the sample. The length-diameter aspect ratio was 1.275 to optimise the amount of clay sampled for subsequent testing and in an attempt to minimize the pressure in front of the tube. Samples were taken in initially newly excavated trenches at a depth of c. 1 m with this new sampler and with conventionally sampled soil specimens, prior to the main testing programme with samples from 6 m depth. A comparative study was then performed including preliminary unconsolidated unconfined compression tests followed by anisotropically consolidated undrained triaxial compression tests. It was important to establish whether this approach had led to an improvement in sample quality prior to embarking on an extensive triaxial stress path testing programme on this varved soil (Messerklinger, Non-linearity and small strain behaviour in lacustrine clay, 2006; Messerklinger and Springman, Geotech Test J 30(6), 2007; Messerklinger and Springman, Geotech Geol J, 2008). The results showed that the undrained shear strength of the specimens from the new sampler was consistently around 20% higher than that of specimens extruded from conventional thin walled tube samplers. This confirmed that samples with a significantly higher quality could be extracted from normally consolidated, fine grained, varved lacustrine deposits with this large diameter ‘block’ sampling tube.     

Some Effects of Shearing Velocity on the Shear Stress-Deformation Behaviour of Hard–Soft Artificial Material Interfaces

Shear behaviour of the joints formed by the interface of two different material types, such as rock and cemented paste backfill, rock and concrete or two different rock types, have practical importance in many rock engineering activities. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation into the shear behaviour of these special joints under pseudo-static shear velocity. Direct shear tests on concrete–plaster interfaces were carried out under boundary conditions of constant normal load and constant normal stiffness. Shearing velocities of the performed tests were in the range of 0.3–30 mm/min. The results of the shear tests conducted on the planar and rough artificial prepared joints showed that the shearing velocity has a significant influence on the shear strength, friction angle and shear stiffness of the hard–soft material interface. So that, these parameters were decreased when shear velocity was increased. Also, comparison of the tests results that performed on the concrete–plaster joints with those from tests on the plaster–plaster and concrete–concrete interfaces showed that the shear behaviour of concrete–plaster interface is governed mainly by the shear parameters of the plaster block (namely softer material).     

On a multilaminate model for soil incorporating small strain stiffness

In this paper a constitutive model for soils incorporating small strain stiffness formulated in the multilaminate framework is presented. In the multilaminate framework, the stress–strain behaviour of a material is obtained by integrating the mechanical response of an infinite number of randomly oriented planes passing through a material point. Such a procedure leads to a number of advantages in describing soil behaviour, the most significant being capture of initial and induced anisotropy due to plastic flow in a physically meaningful manner. In the past, many soil models of varying degree of refinement in the multilaminate framework have been presented by various authors. However, the issue of high initial soil stiffness in the range of very small strains and its degradation with straining, commonly referred to as ‘small strain stiffness’, has not been addressed within the multilaminate framework. In this paper, we adopt a micromechanics‐based approach to derive small strain elastic stiffness of the soil mass. Comparison of laboratory test data with results obtained from numerical simulations based on the proposed constitutive model incorporating small strain stiffness is performed to demonstrate its predictive capabilities. The model is implemented in a finite element code and numerical simulations of a deep excavation are presented with and without incorporation of small strain stiffness to demonstrate its importance in predicting profiles of deformation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The definition of yield for bonded materials

Summary In this paper the different definitions of yield for bonded materials are reviewed. It is suggested that yield should be defined based on changes in stiffness from the tangential stiffness versus axial strain graph. Comparisons are made with a recent framework proposed by Jardine and good agreement is shown between Jardine's approach and that presented here, in respect of an initial yield and a final yield point. However, based on data from natural and artificially bonded soils, an additional yield point, that of second yield, is identified where a major drop in stiffness is initiated. In the past the identification of final yield has been used to identify the border between two modes of failure for the shear behaviour of a bonded soil. The first mode is defined when shearing at low confining stresses and the bonded material's strength is greater than that of the destructured soil. A second mode is defined when shearing at high confining stresses where its strength is unaffected by the bonds. In this paper, based on the identification of the second yield, a new transitional mode of failure is clarified at intermediate stresses, where although the soil yields at the initial stages of shearing, it still demonstrates strengths higher than those of the destructured soil due to the post-yield influence of the bonds.