Humidity Effect and Its Influence on the Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation δ18O in Monsoon Regions

The humidity effect, namely the markedly positive correlation between the stable isotopic ratio in precipitation and the dew-point deficit △Td in the atmosphere, is put forward firstly and the relationships between the δ18O in precipitation and △Td are analyzed for the Urumqi and Kunming stations, which have completely different climatic characteristics. Although the seasonal variations in δ18O and △Td exhibit differences between the two stations, their humidity effect is notable. The correlation coefficient and its confidence level of the humidity effect are higher than those of the amount effect at Kunming, showing the marked influence of the humidity conditions in the atmosphere on stable isotopes in precipitation.Using a kinetic model for stable isotopic fractionation, and according to the seasonal distribution of meanmonthly temperature at 500 hPa at Kunming, the variations of the δ18O in condensate in cloud aresimulated. A very good agreement between the seasonal variations of the simulated mean δ18O and themean monthly temperature at 500 hPa is obtained, showing that the oxygen stable isotope in condensateof cloud experiences a temperature effect. Such a result is markedly different from the amount effect atthe ground. Based on the simulations of seasonal variations of δ18O in falling raindrops, it can be foundthat, in the dry season from November to April, the increasing trend with falling distance of δ18O in fallingraindrops corresponds remarkably to the great ATd, showing a strong evaporation enrichment function infalling raindrops; however, in the wet season from May to October, the δ18O in falling raindrops displaysan unapparent increase corresponding to the small ATd, except in May. By comparing the simulated meanδ18O at the ground with the actual monthly δ18O in precipitation, we see distinctly that the two monthlyδ18O variations agree very well. On average, the δ18O values are relatively lower because of the highlymoist air, heavy rainfall, small △Td and weak evaporation enrichment function of stable isotopes in thefalling raindrops, under the influence of vapor from the oceans; but they are relatively higher because of the dry air, light rainfall, great △Td and strong evaporation enrichment function in falling raindrops, under the control of the continental air mass. Therefore, the δ18O in precipitation at Kunming can be used to indicate the humidity situation in the atmosphere to a certain degree, and thus indicate the intensity of the precipitation and the strength of the monsoon indirectly. The humidity effect changes not only the magnitude of the stable isotopic ratio in precipitation but also its seasonal distribution due to its influence on the strength of the evaporation enrichment of stable isotopes in falling raindrops and the direction of the net mass transfer of stable isotopes between the atmosphere and the raindrops. Consequently, it is inferred that the humidity effect is probably one of the foremost causes generating the amount effect.     

Humidity Effect and Its Influence on the Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation δ~(18)O in Monsoon Regions

The humidity effect, namely the markedly positive correlation between the stable isotopic ratio in precipitation and the dew-point deficit ATd in the atmosphere, is put forward firstly and the relationships between the δ18O in precipitation and ATd are analyzed for the Urumqi and Kunming stations, which have completely different climatic characteristics. Although the seasonal variations in δ18O and △Td exhibit differences between the two stations, their humidity effect is notable. The correlation coefficient and its confidence level of the humidity effect are higher than those of the amount effect at Kunming, showing the marked influence of the humidity conditions in the atmosphere on stable isotopes in precipitation. Using a kinetic model for stable isotopic fractionation, and according to the seasonal distribution of mean monthly temperature at 500 hPa at Kunming, the variations of the δ18O in condensate in cloud are simulated. A very good agreement between the seasonal variations of the simulated     

Stable isotopic variations in precipitation in Southwest China

This study analyzes the relationships of stable isotopes in precipitation with temperature, air pressure and humidity at different altitudes, and the potential influencing mechanisms of control factors on the stable isotopes in precipitation in Southwest China. There appear marked negative correlations of the δ18O in precipitation with precipitation amount, vapor pressure and atmospheric precipitable water (PW)at the Mengzi, Simao and Tengchong stations on the synoptic timescale; the marked negative correlations between the δ18O in precipitation and the diurnal mean temperature at 400 hPa, 500 hPa, 700 hPa and 850hPa are different from the temperature effect in middle-high-latitude inland areas. In addition, the notable positive correlation between the δ18O in precipitation and the dew-point deficit △Td at different altitudes is found at the three stations. Precipitation is not the only factor generating an amount effect. Probably,the amount effect is related to the variations of atmospheric circulation and vapor origins. On the annual timescale, the annual precipitation amount weighted-mean δ18O displays negative correlations not only with annual precipitation but also with annual mean temperature at 500 hPa. It can be deduced that, in the years with an abnormally strong summer monsoon, more warm and wet air from low-latitude oceans is transported northward along the vapor channel located in Southwest China and generates abnormally strong rainfall on the way. Meanwhile, the abnormally strong condensation process will release more condensed latent heat in the atmosphere, and this will lead to a rise of atmospheric temperature during rainfall but a decline of δ18O in the precipitation. On the other hand, in the years with an abnormally weak summer monsoon, the precipitation and the atmospheric temperature during rainfalls decrease abnormally but the δ18O in precipitation increases.     

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF VARIATIONS ON STABLE ISOTOPIC RATIOS IN FALLING RAINDROPS

The variations of stable isotopic contents in falling raindrops are not only influenced by thehumidity conditions, but also by the stable isotopic contents in atmospheric vapor to a certainextent. If there is a difference between the isotopic contents in the vapor of the surrounding air andat the surface of the raindrops, the move of the isotopic contents from high to low values will beproduced. Usually. influenced by the evaporation process, the stable isotopic ratios in raindropsare constantly increased in the unsaturated atmosphere. The less the atmospheric humidity, themore obvious the increased range. As the enrichment rate of stable isotopes in raindrops is equal tothe outward isotopic move rate. the "pseudo-equilibrium state" appears. The influence ofevaporation on stable isotopic contents disappears in the saturated atmosphere, so that themagnitude of isotopic ratio in raindrops is dependent on the isotopic exchange between theraindrops and the surrounding atmosphere.     

Spatiotemporal Distributions of δD in Atmospheric Water Vapor Based on TES Data During 2004-2009

The spatial and temporal distributions of the stable isotopes such as HD16O (or 1H2H16O, or HDO) and H218O in atmospheric water vapor are related to evaporation in source places, vapor condensation during transport, and vapor convergence and divergence, and thus provide useful information for investigation and understanding of the global water cycle. This paper analyzes spatiotemporal variations of the content of iso- tope HDO (i.e., δD), in atmospheric water vapor, namely, δDv, and the relationship of δDv with atmospheric humidity and temperature at different levels in the troposphere, using the HDO and H2O data retrieved from the Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES) at seven pressure levels from 825 to 100 hPa. The results indicate that δDv has a clear zonal distribution in the troposphere and a good correspondence with atmospheric precipitable water. The results also show that δDv decreases logarithmically with atmospheric pressure and presents a decreasing trend from the equator to high latitudes and from lands to oceans. Sea- sonal changes of δDv exhibit regional differences. The spatial distribution and seasonal variation of δDv in the low troposphere are consistent with those in the middle troposphere, but opposite situations occur from the upper troposphere to the lower stratosphere. The correlation between δDv and temperature has a similar distribution pattern to the correlation between δDv and precipitable water in the troposphere. The stable isotope HDO in water vapor (δDv), compared with that in precipitation (δDp), is of some differences in spatial distribution and seasonal variation, and in its relationship with temperature and humidity, in- dicating that the impacts of stable isotopic fractionation and atmospheric circulation on the two types of stable isotopes are different.     

THE TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL VARIATION OF STABLE ISOTOPES IN PRECIPITATION ON THE TIBETAN PLATEAU AND ITS ADJACENT REGIONS*

The temporal and spatial variation on the stable isotopic compositions in precipitation and the relationship with temperature,precipitation and vapor sources are analyzed for the Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent regions.There is no temperature effect in the southern Tibetan Plateau and South Asia.Amount effect has been observed at a few sampling stations that account for about a half of the statistical stations.However,the seasonal variations on the stable isotopic compositions in precipitation at those stations are inconsistent with that of precipitation intensity.There is notable temperature effect in the middle and northern Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent Northwest China.It has been observed that the seasonal variations of the δ¹⁸O in precipitation are almost consistent with those of air temperature in these regions.Because vapor is directly originated from lowlatitude oceans,the relative heavy δ¹⁸O with small variation characterizes the rainfall in South Asia.A sharp depletion of the stable isotopic compositions in precipitation takes place from Kyangjin on the southern slop of the Himalayas to the Tanggula Mountains in the middle Plateau.The δ¹⁸O reaches minimum due to very strong rainout of the vapor from oceans as the vapor rises over the Himalayas.From the Tanggula Mountains to the northern Tibetan Plateau,the δ¹⁸O in precipitation increases with increasing latitude and the is otopic situation in the northern Plateau istransferred into Northwest China with little disruption.     

Simulations of Stable Isotopic Fractionation in Mixed Cloud in Middle Latitudes―Taking the Precipitation at ürǖmqi as an Example

The introduced mathematical model takes into account the role of the kinetic fractionation effect in a supersaturation environment at the ice surface as liquid and solid phases coexist in mixed cloud. Using the model, the temperature effect of stable isotopes in precipitation is simulated under different cooling conditions. The rate of change of δ18O against temperature in the process of wet adiabatic cooling is smaller than in the process of isobaric cooling under the same humidity. The increasing supersaturation ratio at the ice surface, Si, leads to the strengthening of the kinetic fractionation effect. The kinetic fractionation function makes the synthesis fractionation factor decreased and the change of δ18O with temperature flatted, compared with that in the equilibrium state. The simulated results show that the slope parameter b and the intercept d of the meteoric water line (MWL), δD = bδ18O+d, in wet adiabatic cooling are both greater than those in isobaric cooling. The global MWL lies between the two MWLs simulated under wet adiabatic and isobaric cooling processes, respectively. The magnitudes of b and d are directly proportional to Si. The greater the Si, the stronger the kinetic fractionation effect, and thus the greater the b and d, and vice versa. However, b and d have low sensitivity to the liquid-water contents in the cloud. Using the kinetic fractionation model, the variation of stable isotopes in precipitation at Urumqi is simulated. The simulated stable isotopic ratio vs temperature and the δD vs δ18O curves are very consistent with the actual regressions and MWL at Uruimqi, respectively.     

Variations of δ18O in Precipitation along Vapor Transport Paths

Three sampling cross sections along the south path starting from the Tropics through the vapor passage in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau to the middle-low reaches of the Yangtze River, the north path from West China, via North China, to Japan under the westerlies, and the plateau path from South Asia over the Himalayas to the northern Tibetan Plateau, are set up, based on the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)/WMO global survey network and sampling sites on the Tibetan Plateau. The variations, and the relationship with precipitation and temperature, of the δ18O in precipitation along the three cross sections are analyzed and compared. Along the south path, the seasonal differences of mean δ18O in precipitation are small at the stations located in the Tropics, but increase markedly from Bangkok towards the north, with the δ18O in the rainy season smaller than inthe dry season. The δ18O values in precipitation fluctuate on the whole, which shows that there are different vapor sources. Along the north path, the seasonal differences of the mean δ18O in precipitation for the stations in the west of Zhengzhou are all greater than in the east of Zhengzhou. During the cold half of the year, the mean δ18O in precipitation reaches its minimum at Urumqi with the lowest temperature due to the wide, cold high pressure over Mongolia, then increases gradually with longitude, and remains at roughly the same level at the stations eastward from Zhengzhou. During the warm half of the year, the δ18O values in precipitation are lower in the east than in the west, markedly influenced by the summer monsoon over East Asia. Along the plateau path, the mean δ18O values in precipitation in the rainy season are correspondingly high in the southern parts of the Indian subcontinent, and then decrease gradually with latitude. A sharp depletion of the stable isotopic compositions in precipitation takes place due to the very strong rainout of the stable isotopic compositions in vapor in the process of lifting over the southern slope of the Himalayas. The low level of the δ18O in precipitation is from Nyalam to the Tanggula Mountains during the rainy season,but δ18O increases persistently with increasing latitude from the Tanggula Mountains to the northern Tibetan Plateau because of the replenishment of vapor with relatively heavy stable isotopic compositions originating from the inner plateau. During the dry season, the mean δ18O values in precipitation basically decrease along the path from the south to the north. Generally, the mean δ18O in precipitation during the rainy season is lower than in the dry season for the regions controlled by the monsoons over South Asia or the plateau, and opposite for the regions without a monsoon or with a weak monsoon.     

Variations of δ^18 O in Precipitation along Vapor Transport Paths

Three sampling cross sections along the south path starting from the Tropics through the vapor passage in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau to the middle-low reaches of the Yangtze River, the north path from West China, via North China, to Japan under the westerlies, and the plateau path from South Asia over the Himalayas to the northern Tibetan Plateau, are set up, based on the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)/WMO global survey network and sampling sites on the Tibetan Plateau. The variations, and the relationship with precipitation and temperature, of the δ^18 O in precipitation along the three cross sections are analyzed and compared. Along the south path, the seasonal differences of mean δ^18 O in precipitation are small at the stations located in the Tropics, but increase markedly from Bangkok towards the north, with the 51so in the rainy season smaller than inthe dry season. The δ^18 O sovalues in precipitation fluctuate on the whole, which shows that there are different vapor sources. Along the north path, the seasonal differences of the mean δ^18 O in precipitation for the stations in the west of Zhengzhou are all greater than in the east of Zhengzhou. During the cold half of the year, the mean δ^18 O in precipitation reaches its minimum at Uriimqi with the lowest temperature due to the wide, cold high pressure over Mongolia, then increases gradually with longitude, and remains at roughly the same level at the stations eastward from Zhengzhou. During the warm half of the year, the δ^18 O values in precipitation are lower in the east than in the west, markedly influenced by the summer monsoon over East Asia. Along the plateau path, the mean δ^18 O values in precipitation in the rainy season are correspondingly high in the southern parts of the Indian subcontinent, and then decrease gradually with latitude. A sharp depletion of the stable isotopic compositions in precipitation takes place due to the very strong rainout of the stable isotopic compositions in vapor in the process of lifting over the southern slope of the Himalayas. The low level of the δ^18 O in precipitation is from Nyalam to the Tanggula Mountains during the rainy season,but δ^18 O increases persistently with increasing latitude from the Tanggula Mountains to the northern Tibetan Plateau because of the replenishment of vapor with relatively heavy stable isotopic compositions originating from the inner plateau. During the dry season, the mean δ^18 O values in precipitation basically decrease along the path from the south to the north. Generally, the mean δ^18 O in precipitation during the rainy season is lower than in the dry season for the regions controlled by the monsoons over South Asia or the plateau, and opposite for the regions without a monsoon or with a weak monsoon.     

Variations of δ~(18)O in Precipitation along Vapor Transport Paths

Three sampling cross sections along the south path starting from the Tropics through the vapor passage in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau to the middle-low reaches of the Yangtze River, the north path from West China, via North China, to Japan under the westerlies, and the plateau path from South Asia over the Himalayas to the northern Tibetan Plateau, are set up, based on the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)/WMO global survey network and sampling sites on the Tibetan Plateau. The variations, and the relationship with precipitation and temperature, of the δ18 O in precipitation along the three cross sections are analyzed and compared. Along the south path, the seasonal differences of mean δ18O in precipitation are small at the stations located in the Tropics, but increase markedly from Bangkok towards the north, with the δ18O in the rainy season smaller than in,the dry season. The δ18O values in precipitation fluctuate on the whole, which shows that there are different vapor sources. Along the n     

STUDY ON THE MAIN CLIMATE MODES OF SHANDONG PRECIPITATION AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH THE EAST ASIAN WESTERLY JET

Summer precipitation patterns of Shandong Province are relatively independent with regard to the whole eastern China region.To study the rules and causes of precipitation variations,three main climate modes-on the annual,seasonal,and climatic intra-seasonal oscillation(CISO) scales-are extracted using a harmonic analysis method based on daily precipitation of Shandong during 1965-2009 and multi-year averaged pentad precipitation at 722 stations in China during 1971-2000.Among the three precipitation climate modes,the annual mode is closely related to the annual cycle of Earth-Atmosphere thermal system,which is characterized by the periodic dry and wet seasons.The seasonal mode reflects the monsoon effect on precipitation and the main flood season’s contribution to annual precipitation variations.As an important climatic signal,the CISO mode is more evident during summer monsoon.The gradual modulations of the CISO mode,seasonal mode,and annual mode control the annual variation of precipitation.To study the relationship between precipitation climate modes and atmospheric circulations,an East Asian Westerly Jet Index(EAWJI) is defined in this paper.It is revealed that precipitation of Shandong is closely related to EAWJI in all climate modes.A wet or dry phase of each climate mode corresponds to a specific atmospheric circulation pattern.The phase of the annual mode is reverse to that of EAWJI.During the wet phase of the seasonal mode(weak phase of EAWJI),the atmospheric circulation in and around Shandong is characterized by upper-level divergence and low-level convergence.A reversed atmospheric circulation exists for the dry phase(strong phase for EAWJI).In the summer wet phase of CISO mode(strong phase of EAWJI),Shandong is controlled by upper-level divergence and low-level convergence.Again,the dry phase is corresponding to a reversed circulation structure.The methodology employed in this research,i.e.studying the precipitation climatic variations in terms of independent components of different temporal scales,provides a new approach for annual and seasonal precipitation prediction.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE DRAG EFFECT OF PRECIPITATING PARTICLES ON FLUID MOTION

An experiment is performed to simulate the drag effect of raindrops on the air motion in the atmosphere by means of fine sand particles precipitating through a liquid fluid. The results suggest that the drag effect of the precipitating particles may cause the downward motion in the column where sand particles (or raindrops) precipitate, and produce the updraft around, thus forming a vertical vortex flow pattern around the precipitation area. This effect is also found to be propagating outward, resulting in a multi-vortex flow field. In the stratified fluid, vortexes can be observed at 2 or 3 levels. In the lower layer, the rotating direction of vortexes varies periodically, In addition, the whole flow field induced by the drag effect of precipitating particles is characterized by clear vacillation. The experimental results obtained in this paper can be used to explain the phenomena of multi-layer clouds and multi-belt rainfalll around the severe rain.     

CLIMATE ANOMALY RECORDED IN GULIYA ICE CORE AND ENSO EVENTS

Examination of ENSO events and the accumulated precipitation and δ~(18)O values recorded in theGuliya ice core,China,shows that the relationship between the occurrence of ENSO events and theprecipitation anomaly in Guliya is significant.In the years of El Nino events,the anomalies ofprecipitation and δ~(18)O values in the Guliya ice core were negative anomalies,that is,the ENSO eventsare related to the deficit of precipitation as well as low temperature in the western China.     

CLIMATE ANOMALY RECORDED IN GULIYA ICE CORE AND ENSO EVENTS*

Examination of ENSO events and the accumulated precipitation and δ¹⁸O values recorded in the Guliya ice core,China,shows that the relationship between the occurrence of ENSO events and the precipitation anomaly in Guliya is significant.In the years of El Nino events,the anomalies of precipitation and δ¹⁸O values in the Guliya ice core were negative anomalies,that is,the ENSO events are related to the deficit of precipitation as well as low temperature in the western China.     

Analysis of the Microphysical Properties of a Stratiform Rain Event Using an L-Band Profiler Radar

This paper investigates spatial and temporal distributions of the microphysical properties of precipitating stratiform clouds based on Doppler spectra of rain particles observed by an L-band profiler radar.The retrieval of raindrop size distributions（RSDs） is accomplished through eliminating vertical air motion and isolating the terminal fall velocity of raindrops in the observed Doppler velocity spectrum.The microphysical properties of raindrops in a broad stratiform region with weak convective cells are studied using data collected from a 1320-MHz wind profiler radar in Huayin,Shaanxi Province on 14 May 2009.RSDs and gamma function parameters are retrieved at altitudes between 700 and 3000 m above the surface,below a melting layer.It is found that the altitude of the maximum number of raindrops was closely related to the surface rain rate.The maximum number of large drops was observed at lower altitudes earlier in the precipitation event but at higher altitudes in later periods,suggesting decreases in the numbers of large and medium size raindrops.These decreases may have been caused by the breakup of larger drops and evaporation of smaller drops as they fell.The number of medium size drops decreased with increasing altitude.The relationship between reflectivity and liquid water content during this precipitation event was Z = 1.69×10~4M~（1.5）,and the relationship between reflectivity and rain intensity was Z = 256I~（1.4）.     

Diversity on the Interannual Variations of Spring Monthly Precipitation in Southern China and the Associated Tropical Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies

There is a continuous and relatively stable rainy period every spring in southern China (SC). This spring precipitation process is a unique weather and climate phenomenon in East Asia. Previously, the variation characteristics and associated mechanisms of this precipitation process have been mostly discussed from the perspective of seasonal mean. Based on the observed and reanalysis datasets from 1982 to 2021, this study investigates the diversity of the interannual variations of monthly precipitation in spring in SC, and focuses on the potential influence of the tropical sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies. The results show that the interannual variations of monthly precipitation in spring in SC have significant differences, and the correlations between each two months are very weak. All the interannual variations of precipitation in three months are related to a similar western North Pacific anomalous anticyclone (WNPAC), and the southwesterlies at the western flank of WNPAC bring abundant water vapor for the precipitation in SC. However, the WNPAC is influenced by tropical SST anomalies in different regions each month. The interannual variation of precipitation in March in SC is mainly influenced by the signal of El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation, and the associated SST anomalies in the equatorial central-eastern Pacific regulate the WNPAC through the Pacific-East Asia (PEA) tele-connection. In contrast, the WNPAC associated with the interannual variation of precipitation in April can be affected by the SST anomalies in the northwestern equatorial Pacific through a thermally induced Rossby wave response. The interannual variation of precipitation in May is regulated by the SST anomalies around the western Maritime Continent, which stimulates the development of low-level anomalous anticyclones over the South China Sea and east of the Philippine Sea by driving anomalous meridional vertical circulation.     

A new perspective of the physical processes associated with the clear-sky greenhouse effect over high latitudes

The physical processes associated with the clear-sky greenhouse effect in the presence of water vaporare examined by including surface emissivity in the greenhouse effect formulation, and by introducing anew way to partition physical processes of the greenhouse effect. In this new framework, it is found thatthe clear-sky greenhouse effect is governed by three physical processes associated with (1) the temperaturecontrast between the surface and the atmosphere, (2) the interaction between the surface emissivity andthe temperature contrast, and (3) the surface emissivity. The importance of the three physical processes isassessed by computing their vertical and spectral variations for the subarctic winter and summer standardatmosphere using the radiation model MODTRAN3 (Moderate Resolution Transmittance code Version3). The results show that the process associated with the temperature contrast between the surface andthe atmosphere dominates over the other two processes ill magnitude. The magnitude of this process hassubstantial variations in the spectral region of 1250 to 1880 cm 1 and in the far infrared region. Due tothe low-level temperature inversion over the subarctic winter, there exists a negative contribution to thegreenhouse trapping. The seasonal variations are, however, dominated by the processes associated with theinteraction between the surface emissivity and the temperature contrast as well as the surface emissivityitself. The magnitudes of these two physical processes contributing to the greenhouse trapping over thesubarctic winter are about 7 to 10 times of those over the subarctic summer, whereas the magnitude ofthe processes associated with the temperature contrast ill the subarctic summer is only about 2 times ofthat in the subarctic winter.     

STUDY ON THE GENESIS OF ASYMMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECIPITATION ASSOCIATED WITH THE TYPHOON HAITANG (2005) FROM THE VIEW OF ATMOSPHERIC FACTOR

The distribution of precipitation field from the typhoon Haitang (2005) during its landing on Fujian province shows obvious asymmetric feature. Based on the NCEP/NCAR FNL (Final Analysis) data, this study reveals the contributions of atmospheric factor to the asymmetrical distribution characteristics of precipitation associated with the typhoon, through the analysis of water vapor condition, vertical ascending motion condition, the calculation of the dry Q vector and its decomposition, and adiabatic heating in the air column of 1000hPa -600hPa (lower atmosphere) and 500hPa-100hPa (upper atmosphere). The results are as follows: (1) In the lower atmosphere, the humidity on both sides of typhoon path can be equivalent, while it is more wet on the right side than left in the upper atmosphere, which obviously presents asymmetric distribution characteristics. (2) Both range and intensity of the vertical motion on the right side are wider and stronger than counterparts on the left side no matter in the lower or upper atmosphere. (3) In the upper atmosphere, forcing role of atmosphere in vertical upward motion on the right side of typhoon path is the same as that on the left, while it is significantly different in the lower atmosphere, which is significantly broader in scope and stronger in the intensity, along with obvious asymmetric distribution characteristics. In addition, the further analysis of the Q vector decomposition indicates that the forcing effect of mesoscale weather systems on vertical upward motion is stronger than that of large scale weather systems in the lower atmosphere. (4) The adiabatic heating always exists on both lower and upper atmosphere, and the range and intensity of the adiabatic heating forcing showed asymmetric distribution on both lower and upper atmosphere. (5) In a summary, the upper atmosphere humidity conditions, the forcing role of lower atmosphere in vertical upward motion, especially, to mesoscale weather system, and adiabatic heating in the lower atmosphere, all show similar asymmetric distribution characteristics to that of precipitation field from the typhoon Haitang (2005), that is to say, the atmospheric factors as mentioned above are all contributed to genesis of the asymmetric distribution characteristics of precipitation.     

Trends and scales of observed soil moisture variations in China

A new soil moisture dataset from direct gravimetric measurements within the top 50-cm soil layers at 178 soil moisture stations in China covering the period 1981-1998 are used to study the long-term and seasonal trends of soil moisture variations, as well as estimate the temporal and spatial scales of soil moisture for different soil layers. Additional datasets of precipitation and temperature difference between land surface and air (TDSA) are analyzed to gain further insight into the changes of soil moisture. There are increasing trends for the top 10 cm, but decreasing trends for the top 50 cm of soil layers in most regions. Trends in precipitation appear to dominantly influence trends in soil moisture in both cases. Seasonal variation of soil moisture is mainly controlled by precipitation and evaporation, and in some regions can be affected by snow cover in winter. Timescales of soil moisture variation are roughly 1-3 months and increase with soil depth. Further influences of TDSA and precipitation on soil moisture in surface layers, rather than in deeper layers, cause this phenomenon. Seasonal variations of temporal scales for soil moisture are region-dependent and consistent in both layer depths. Spatial scales of soil moisture range from 200-600 km, with topography also having an affect on these. Spatial scales of soil moisture in plains are larger than in mountainous areas. In the former, the spatial scale of soil moisture follows the spatial patterns of precipitation and evaporation, whereas in the latter, the spatial scale is controlled by topography.     

Precipitation changes in wet and dry seasons over the 20th century simulated by two versions of the FGOALS model

Seasonal precipitation changes over the globe during the 20 th century simulated by two versions of the Flexible Global Ocean–Atmosphere–Land System(FGOALS) model are assessed. The two model versions differ in terms of their AGCM component, but the remaining parts of the system are almost identical. Both models reasonably reproduce the mean-state features of the timings of the wet and dry seasons and related precipitation amounts, with pattern correlation coefficients of 0.65–0.84 with observations. Globally averaged seasonal precipitation changes are analyzed. The results show that wet seasons get wetter and the annual range(precipitation difference between wet and dry seasons) increases during the 20 th century in the two models, with positive trends covering most parts of the globe, which is consistent with observations. However,both models show a moistening dry season, which is opposite to observations. Analysis of the globally averaged moisture budget in the historical climate simulations of the two models shows little change in the horizontal moisture advection in both the wet and dry seasons. The globally averaged seasonal precipitation changes are mainly dominated by the changes in evaporation and vertical moisture advection. Evaporation and vertical moisture advection combine to make wet seasons wetter and enhance the annual range. In the dry season, the opposite change of evaporation and vertical moisture advection leads to an insignificant change in precipitation. Vertical moisture advection is the most important term that determines the changes in precipitation, wherein the thermodynamic component is dominant and the dynamic component tends to offset the effect of the thermodynamic component.