Wildfire preparedness,community cohesion and social–ecological systems

The consequences of wildfires are felt in susceptible communities around the globe on an annual basis. Climate change predictions in places like the south-east of Australia and western United States suggest that wildfires may become more frequent and more intense with global climate change. Compounding this issue is progressive urban development at the peri-urban fringe (wildland–urban interface), where continued infrastructure development and demographic changes are likely to expose more people and property to this potentially disastrous natural hazard. Preparing well in advance of the wildfire season is seen as a fundamental behaviour that can both reduce community wildfire vulnerability and increase hazard resilience – it is an important element of adaptive capacity that allows people to coexist with the hazardous environment in which they live. We use household interviews and surveys to build and test a substantive model that illustrates how social cohesion influences the decision to prepare for wildfire. We demonstrate that social cohesion, particularly community characteristics like ‘sense of community’ and ‘collective problem solving’, are community-based resources that support both the adoption of mechanical preparations, and the development of cognitive abilities and capacities that reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience to wildfire. We use the results of this work to highlight opportunities to transfer techniques and approaches from natural hazards research to climate change adaptation research to explore how the impacts attributed to the social components of social–ecological systems can be mitigated more effectively.     

Comparison between the Response of the Northwest Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea to Typhoon Megi(2010)

The upper-ocean responses to Typhoon Megi(2010)are investigated using data from ARGO floats and the satellite TMI.The experiments are conducted using a three-dimensional Princeton Ocean Model(POM)to assess the storm,which affected the Northwest Pacific Ocean(NWP)and the South China Sea(SCS).Results show that the upwelling and entrainment experiment together account for 93% of the SST anomalies,where typhoon-induced upwelling may cause strong ocean cooling.In addition,the anomalous SST cooling is stronger in the SCS than in the NWP.The most striking feature of the ocean response is the presence of a two-layer inertial wave in the SCS—a feature that is absent in the NWP.The near-inertial oscillations can be generated as typhoon wakes,which have maximum flow velocity in the surface mixed layer and may last for a few days,after the typhoon's passage.Along the typhoon tracks,the horizontal currents in the upper ocean show a series of alternating negative and positive anomalies emanating from the typhoon.     

Relationships between Interannual and Intraseasonal Variations of the Asian-Western Pacific Summer Monsoon Hindcasted by BCC_CSM1.1（m）

Using hindcasts of the Beijing Climate Center Climate System Model, the relationships between interannual variability （IAV） and intraseasonal variability （ISV） of the Asian-western Pacific summer monsoon are diagnosed. Predictions show reasonable skill with respect to some basic characteristics of the ISV and IAV of the western North Pacific summer monsoon （WNPSM） and the Indian summer monsoon （ISM）. However, the links between the seasonally averaged ISV （SAISV） and seasonal mean of ISM are overestimated by the model. This deficiency may be partially attributable to the overestimated frequency of long breaks and underestimated frequency of long active spells of ISV in normal ISM years, although the model is capable of capturing the impact of ISV on the seasonal mean by its shift in the probability of phases. Furthermore, the interannual relationships of seasonal mean, SAISV, and seasonally averaged long-wave variability （SALWV; i.e., the part with periods longer than the intraseasonal scale） of the WNPSM and ISM with SST and low-level circulation are examined. The observed seasonal mean, SAISV, and SALWV show similar correlation patterns with SST and atmospheric circulation, but with different details. However, the model presents these correlation distributions with unrealistically small differences among different scales, and it somewhat overestimates the teleconnection between monsoon and tropical central-eastern Pacific SST for the ISM, but underestimates it for the WNPSM, the latter of which is partially related to the too-rapid decrease in the impact of E1 Nifio-Southern Oscillation with forecast time in the model.     

江南雨季降水与前期西太平洋暖池热含量异常的关系及其可能机制

利用日本气象厅提供的历史海温资料、Hadley环流中心逐月海表温度(Sea Surface Temperature,简称SST)资料、美国NCEP/NCAR再分析资料以及江南地区逐旬降水资料,研究江南地区4—6月(江南雨季,亦泛称为华南前汛期)降水与前期暖池热含量异常的关系,并对可能的影响机制进行分析。研究结果表明,前期暖池热含量与江南雨季降水有密切的负相关关系,前期7—8月暖池关键区(130. 5°～150. 5°E,3. 5°～11. 5°N)热含量高(低)可以作为预报江南雨季旱(涝)的一个很好的指标。前期暖池热含量异常对4—6月环流和降水有重要影响。冷水年,菲律宾异常反气旋导致副高西伸加强,显著加强了其西侧暖湿气流向江南地区输送,高层辐散抽吸作用导致江南地区对流上升运动增强,暖水年相反,表明冷(暖)水年江南雨季降水偏多(少)。就影响机制而言,在前期夏季,关键区南侧存在异常强西风,导致在秋末形成了菲律宾异常反气旋,以及关键区附近(东侧)有冷(暖)海表温度异常发展,在当年春季和夏初该反气旋移到菲律宾以北。直到4月,次表层冷水团上传导致冷SST异常维持并加强了该异常反气旋,其西侧西南暖湿气流将水汽从南海和菲律宾海地区源源不断地向江南地区输送。同时,西印度洋暖海温和赤道印度洋东风异常也逐渐发展增强,在热带印度洋形成东西向异常垂直环流,其下沉支始终在西太平洋维持,导致了菲律宾异常反气旋的维持,并进一步引起江南地区的水汽辐合和上升运动。同时,副热带西风急流轴南压引起的高空强辐散,也有利于上升运动和对流活动在江南地区发展。正是上述过程和机制,导致了前期热含量异常偏低(高)时,我国江南雨季降水偏多(少)。     

热带气旋潜在生成指数的对比分析及其在西北太平洋的改进

本研究评估了现有热带气旋(Tropical Cyclone,TC)潜在生成指数(Genesis Potential Indice,GPI)对北大西洋和西北太平洋热带气旋生成频数(TC Genesis Frequency,TCGF)时空特征的表征能力。结果表明,现阶段使用的GPIs能较好地再现两个海盆TCGF的空间分布和季节循环特征,以及北大西洋TCGF的年际变化,但几乎不能模拟西太平洋TCGF年际时间尺度上的变化。利用美国联合飓风警报中心(Joint Typhoon Warming Center,JTWC)提供的1979—2017年热带气旋最佳路径数据集和ERA-Interim再分析数据,对西北太平洋GPI进行了改进。考虑到相对涡度在西北太平洋对热带气旋生成的重要作用,将绝对涡度分离为相对涡度和地转涡度(f),移除相对湿度,使用多元线性回归的方法构建了GPI_WNP。与现有GPIs相比,改进后的GPI_WNP不仅对西北太平洋TCGF的空间分布和季节循环有较好的模拟能力,并且可以再现其年际变化特征。     

Interaction Between Typhoon Vicente (1208) and the Western Pacific Subtropical High During the Beijing Extreme Rainfall of 21 July 2012

The heaviest rainfall in recent six decades fell in Beijing on 21 July 2012, reaching a record of 460 mm within 18 h. This rainfall was a typical remote precipitation event related to Typhoon Vicente(1208).Observational analysis indicates that Vicente influenced distant heavy rainfall by transporting water vapor northward to the Beijing area. This moisture transport was mainly driven by the interaction between Vicente and the western Pacific subtropical high(WPSH) associated with the formation of a low-level southeasterly moisture channel. A set of numerical sensitivity experiments were performed with prescribed typhoons of different intensities to investigate the interaction between Vicente and the WPSH and its effects on this rainstorm process. The results indicate that the WPSH interacting with typhoons of different intensities may exert varying degrees of influence on the development of a southeasterly moisture channel, resulting in a change in rain rate and location over the Beijing area. Specifically, in the presence of an enhanced typhoon,the WPSH shows remarkable withdrawal to the east, which is favorable for a northward extension of the southeasterly moisture channel, thereby increasing moisture supply for the rainstorm. The WPSH tends to stretch westward in a zonal pattern if the typhoon is weakened or removed, hindering the northward extension of the moisture channel. Thus, the rainfall area may be expected to expand or contract, with corresponding increases or decreases in rain rate over the Beijing area with a strengthened or weakened typhoon, respectively.     

长江中游暴雨监测预报系统的设计和结构

自７０年代起，利用高新技术，研制以监测预报中尺度灾害性天气为目标的业务化系统，已成为一个重要领域，在世界范围蓬勃兴起。８０年代内，武汉中心气象台从引进美国数字化天气雷达系统开始，直到国家七五攻关课题＜＜灾害性天气监测和短时预报系统＞＞长江中游片的完成，基本建成了一个现代化的长江中游暴雨监测预报业务系统。作者从系统工程学角度出发，介绍其设计思想，技术策略和系统结构。ＭＹＴＲＯＮＳ的成功标志我国气象业     

影响1991年和1994年南海夏季风爆发迟早的物理因子探讨

通过使用美国NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,利用纬向平均的局地经向环流模式成功地模拟了1991年(爆发晚年)和1994年(爆发早年)南海夏季风的建立过程,经过分析发现,虽然南海夏季风爆发时近地面南风均含有由气压梯度力驱动的地转成分和由除了气压梯度力外的所有动力和热力驱动的非地转成分,且与三维温度梯度有关的温度平流和对流均有正贡献作用,但各因子在(这两年对南海夏季风环流建立时起正贡献的)排序上有明显的差异,主要的差异为:对1991年6月7日00UTC而言,引起地转风的气压梯度力和引起非地转风的热力及动力的合力作用相当.在引起地转偏差的因子中,起正贡献作用的主要因子是潜热加热.而对1994年5月2日00UTC而言,气压梯度力作用相对较小,在引起地转偏差的因子中,起正贡献作用的最大因子是平均纬向温度平流.另外,边界效应独自对模拟的南海近地面最大南风的贡献占42%.引起南海近地层非地转南风的热力和动力因子(稳定度)在1994年5月2日00UTC(早年)均比1991年6月7日00UTC(晚年)大(小).     

热力和动力环境因子对与台风“海燕”路径相似的两类台风强度的相对贡献

本文分析了热力、动力环境因子对与百年一遇超强台风“海燕”有相似路径的热带气旋的强度的影响。为了定量分析环境因子的相对重要性,将相似路径下的台风分为超强台风和一般台风两类。结果表明,相较于动力因子,热力因子对生成超强台风更为重要。根据BDI(Box Difference Index)指数的排序,选择925 hPa湿静力能MSE(Moist Static Energy)、950 hPa比湿、900 hPa温度作为重要预测因子来判断是否生成超强台风。此外,海洋热容量和台风移动速度在两类台风中有着明显差异,也可以作为辅助预测因子。最后,用WRF模式(Weather Research and Forecasting)设计理想数值试验,揭示环境温度和水汽垂直剖面对台风强度影响的相对重要性。敏感性试验结果表明,环境水汽和温度的相对贡献比约为1∶4,它们的共同作用使得相似路径下的一般台风可以发展成为超强台风。     

Simulation of salinity variability and the related freshwater flux forcing in the tropical Pacific: An evaluation using the Beijing normal university earth system model (BNU-ESM)

The climatology and interannual variability of sea surface salinity(SSS) and freshwater flux(FWF) in the equatorial Pacific are analyzed and evaluated using simulations from the Beijing Normal University Earth System Model(BNU-ESM).The simulated annual climatology and interannual variations of SSS, FWF, mixed layer depth(MLD), and buoyancy flux agree with those observed in the equatorial Pacific. The relationships among the interannual anomaly fields simulated by BNU-ESM are analyzed to illustrate the climate feedbacks induced by FWF in the tropical Pacific. The largest interannual variations of SSS and FWF are located in the western-central equatorial Pacific. A positive FWF feedback effect on sea surface temperature(SST) in the equatorial Pacific is identified. As a response to El Ni ?no–Southern Oscillation(ENSO),the interannual variation of FWF induces ocean processes which, in turn, enhance ENSO. During El Ni ?no, a positive FWF anomaly in the western-central Pacific(an indication of increased precipitation rates) acts to enhance a negative salinity anomaly and a negative surface ocean density anomaly, leading to stable stratification in the upper ocean. Hence, the vertical mixing and entrainment of subsurface water into the mixed layer are reduced, and the associated El Ni ?no is enhanced. Related to this positive feedback, the simulated FWF bias is clearly reflected in SSS and SST simulations, with a positive FWF perturbation into the ocean corresponding to a low SSS and a small surface ocean density in the western-central equatorial Pacific warm pool.     

台风狮子山与中纬度系统相互作用所致暴雨成因分析

使用常规观测资料和NCEP FNL的1.0°×1.0°气象再分析资料,对2016年第10号(简称1610号)台风"狮子山"北上与中纬度系统相互作用在中国东北地区引发暴雨过程进行追踪和诊断分析,探究此次暴雨天气发生、发展的动力学、热力学和不稳定机制。分析结果表明:东北地区的强降水先后由西风带低涡和台风"狮子山"2个系统活动造成。在2个气旋逐渐接近过程中,台风东北侧的东南急流把海上的热量和水汽向低涡环流输送,在倒槽切变处辐合抬升,产生暴雨。大暴雨区位于倾斜锋区附近,对流稳定,中层存在湿对称不稳定,有利于加强降水强度。东北地区东部处于高空急流核右后方和低空急流核前方,高、低空急流耦合的区域,使高层强辐散和低层强辐合叠置,加强了暴雨区的上升运动,从而加强了降水强度。地形对暴雨有增幅作用。     

青藏高原上中尺度对流系统(MCSs)的个例分析及其比较

对1995年7月25—28日高原上连续数日出现MCSs的现象进行了红外云图特征及其演变、大尺度环境背景场和对流有效位能的分析。可以发现，所有这些MCSs有着相似的日变化演变过程；它们的初始对流在中午由于日射加热开始活跃，之后迅速发展，这些MCSs在后下午形成，在傍晚达到最强，之后逐渐减弱。其中26日MCS最为强大，它是在单一的强大的近于圆形的高原反气旋高压背景下受强的低层热力强迫和条件不稳定的驱动而发生的。这些发生条件都与高原本身的热力作用紧密相关，所以它的发生发展主要与高原特有的较为纯粹的热力因子相联系。28日MCS是另一个很强的MCS，它明显地受到中纬度西风槽的斜压区的影响，这二个很强的MCS有着不同的发展机制和显著不同的表现特征。     

亚洲和南半球大气热源（汇）对亚洲夏季风影响的数值试验

利用NCAR CAM3.1模式及NCEP/NCAR (version 1)再分析资料计算出来的几种大气热源分布情况,分别讨论亚洲各地区和南半球上空夏季大气加热场(热源或冷源)对东亚季风环流系统和印度季风环流系统形成的影响.结果表明:(1)东亚地区上空的大气热源和澳大利亚冷源与东亚夏季风环流关系密切,东亚大陆上空及西太平...     

热带风暴"菲特"(0114)特大暴雨的诊断研究

海南岛破历史记录的两场特大暴雨都是由穿过琼州海峡的台风所造成,热带风暴"菲特"(Fitow)就是其中的一个.由红外卫星云图、雷达和常规地面加密观测资料发现,当"菲特"穿越琼州海峡时,在其西南侧的海南岛五指山西北侧有一个中尺度对流小涡系统(MCS)生成.特大暴雨就出现在MCS所在地区.作者用PSU/NCAR的中尺度模式对这场暴雨和MCS作了模拟研究,发现当"菲特"穿越琼州海峡时,其外围流场和五指山山脉的辐合极有利于MCS的生成.诊断分析的结果表明,山脉地形生成的MCS,具有很强的上层辐散,中低空有大范围辐合和强的正涡度场.在暴雨加强时,正涡度向中层伸展,高层辐散明显加强.同时, 暴雨区出现较强的垂直运动.上升运动大值区出现在对流层上层,这可能和上层辐散加强有关.这场暴雨的水汽来自南海北部,经由"菲特"东侧的西南气流卷入涡旋之中, 产生较强的水汽辐合.这也是潜热供应的源.诊断分析的结果还表明, MCS所在大气中下层出现了较强的位势不稳定层结,这对这场暴雨提供了对流加强和水汽向上输送的热力条件.     

Climate change in news media across the globe: An automated analysis of issue attention and themes in climate change coverage in 10 countries (2006–2018)

Climate change poses a challenge to countries across the world, with news media being an important source of information on the issue. To understand how and how much news media cover climate change, this study compares coverage in ten countries from the Global North and the Global South between 2006 and 2018 (N = 71,674). Based on a panel analysis, we illustrate that news media attention varies across countries and is often associated with political, scientific, and (partly) societal focusing events. Based on an automated content analysis, we also find that news media do not only cover ecological changes or climate science, but that they focus predominantly on the societal dimension of climate change: They emphasize how humans are aware of, affected by, battle, or cause climate change. Overall, the study illustrates important differences between the Global North and the Global South. While countries from the Global North cover climate change more frequently, countries from the Global South focus more on its challenges and implications for society at large, i.e., the societal dimension of climate change.     

Observation of DMSO and CH3S(O)OH from the gas phase reaction between DMS and OH

Products and mechanisms have been investigated for the reactions between dimethylsulfide (DMS) and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and the hydroxyl radical (OH) in the presence of NO_x. All of the experiments were performed in a 480 L reaction chamber, applying Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and ion chromatography as the analytical techniques.In addition to the sulfur containing products that are known to be produced from the gas phase reaction between DMS and OH (SO₂, dimethylsulfone, methylsulfonyl peroxynitrate, methanesulfonic acid, H₂SO₄), DMSO and methanesulfinic acid (CH₃S(O)OH) were also observed as products. Only SO₂, DMSO₂ and methylsulfonyl peroxynitrate were found as sulfur containing products in the reaction between DMSO and OH. Based on these new results we propose a mechanism for the atmospheric oxidation of DMS and DMSO by OH radical.     

对流层中层中尺度涡旋在台风榴莲(2001)生成中的作用—数值模拟及验证

西太平洋热带气旋（TC）的生成和季风槽及中尺度对流系统（MCS）的活动有密切关系,但以往这方面的实例数值模拟很少。为了进一步探讨由MCS对流强迫产生的对流层中层中尺度涡旋（MCV）在TC生成中的作用,作者利用非静力平衡的中尺度模式PSU/NCAR MM5对台风榴莲（2001）的生成过程进行了高分辨率（6 km）数值模拟和比较验证。结果表明:模式成功地模拟出榴莲的生成地点,其与MCS的相对位置关系与以往的观测研究结果一致;模拟的TC移动路径、强度变化与最优观测报告比较接近,准确反映了TC未来登陆地点,以及中心气压缓慢下降和迅速下降两个阶段;对云系演变的模拟,成功模拟出了TC初生时的涡旋云系和季风槽中MCS云系的分离现象,以及在TC登陆前达到成熟阶段时出现的台风眼和螺旋云带。此外,模式还成功模拟出中层MCV,它的水平尺度约200 km,位于800~400 hPa之间,具有暖心结构等,均与已有观测结果相近。模式初始场中包含有充分的MCS信息,是模拟取得成功的关键因素之一。     

1998和2010年夏季降水异常成因的对比分析：兼论两类不同厄尔尼诺事件的影响

1998和2010年夏季长江流域均发生了明显的洪涝灾害,且都是厄尔尼诺事件的次年(衰亡位相).不同的是:1997/1998年冬季的厄尔尼诺事件是传统东部型,而2009/2010年冬季的厄尔尼诺事件是中部型(EL Ni(n)o Modoki).首先利用中国160个台站月降水观测资料,对比了1998和2010年降水异常情况,结果显示除长江流域多降水这一共同特征外,1998和2010年降水分布还存在一定差异.利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,对比了大气环流异常特征.结果表明:与1998年相比,2010年西北太平洋对流层低层异常反气旋中心位置偏北偏西,西太平洋副热带高压偏强、脊线偏北,使得南海孟加拉湾西南风减弱而东亚南风加强,导致自印度洋、南海向内陆的水汽输送减少,而自西太平洋的水汽输送增加并输送到偏北的位置,雨带比1998年偏北,中国西南地区降水比1998年偏少.进一步分析厄尔尼诺的影响,揭示环流形势的变化与中部型厄尔尼诺年赤道太平洋异常上升气流比传统厄尔尼诺年偏西、西太平洋异常下沉气流随之变化有关.利用GFDL大气环流模式AM2.1,进行了给定1998和2010年实际观测海温强迫的试验,显示海温差异能够部分解释观测到的环流异常.最后,将这两个个例与历史合成进行了比较,发现2010年与历史合成的中部型厄尔尼诺存在较大差异,表明中部型厄尔尼诺对中国夏季降水的影响比以前所认识的要复杂.     

Exchange of Short-Chain Oxygenated Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) between Plants and the Atmosphere: A Compilation of Field and Laboratory Studies

Field and laboratory investigations of the exchange of the short-chain organic acids – formic acid and acetic acid – as well as their homologous aldehydes are discussed. Both acids are substantially released from several plant species. Emission measurements under field conditions are compiled to give an overview of three years of measurements. Emission rates from several tree species were found in the range between zero and 60 nmoles m^–2 min^–1 for acetic acid and between zero and 90 nmoles m^–2 min^–1 for formic acid though also a deposition has been observed to orange trees. Investigations under laboratory conditions showed an order of magnitude lower emission rates with significant differences under light and dark conditions, and a deposition was observed under certain conditions. Hence, low emission rates or even a bi-directional exchange, emission as well as deposition have to be taken into account. Further differences between field and laboratory studies are discussed considering age of trees, stress effects and a potential production of acids by photochemical conversion of precursors inside enclosures during sampling. Field data on the exchange of form- and acetaldehyde show a complex behavior. We found emission as well as uptake. The bi-directional exchange is significantly triggered by the ambient mixing ratios of both aldehyde species and exhibits a compensation point. Further studies are needed for generalization of the exchange of these and potentially also for other compounds.