Concentration of Peroxides and Formaldehyde in Air and Rain and Gas-Rain Partitioning

Rain and air of Florence have been collected in a continuous way andanalysed by flow analysis spectrofluorimetric methods for formaldehydeand hydrogen peroxide. Diurnal and seasonal variations were observed;the mean/maximum concentrations of all data (as gm^–3) are 3.3/23.4 for HCHO and 0.4/4.93 forH₂O₂. The effect of external sources and ofphotochemical reactions produces periods of positive and negativecorrelations for these compounds. The mean/maximum rain concentration ofall data are 98/443 g l^–1 for HCHO and 84/685 g l^–1 for H₂O₂. Concentrationratios rain/air and discrepancies to Henry's Law equilibrium arediscussed.     

Henry's law and the behavior of weak acids and bases in fog and cloud

Experimental data from two field experiments on ground based clouds were used to study the distribution of formic acid, acetic acid, ammonia and S(IV) species between liquid and gas phase. The ratio of the concentrations of these compounds between the phases during concurrent measurements was compared to ratios expected according to Henry's law (considering the pH influence). Large discrepancies of several orders of magnitude were seen. Three hypotheses have been investigated to explain the observed discrepancies: The existence of a microscale equilibrium which does not persist in a bulk sample, a thermodynamic shift of the equilibrium due to competing reactions, and nonequilibrium conditions due to mass transfer limitations. Approximate quantitative calculations show that none of these hypotheses is sufficient to explain all of the discrepancies, so a combination of different effects seems to be responsible for this observation. The same theoretical considerations also suggest that mass transfer limitation may be an important factor for highly soluble compounds. The data presented here indicates that it is not possible to simply extrapolate interstitial gas phase composition from measured bulk liquid phase concentrations of a fog or cloud.Notation [r _max] liquid phase molar uptake rate (mol l^–1 s^–1) - [A _g ] concentration ofA in gas phase (atm) - [A _l ] concentration ofA in liquid phase (mol l^–1) - [A _g , 0] concentration ofA in gas phase (atm) at time 0 - LWC liquid water content (g m^–3) - R universal gas constant (0.082 l atm mol^–1 K^–1 - D _g diffusivity (for all gases 0.1 cm² s^–1 was used) - K _H ^* effective Henry's law coefficient (mol l^–1 atm^–1) - t _f lifetime of fog droplet (s) - a droplet radius (cm) - accommodation coefficient - R factor of discrepancy - T temperature (K) - v mean molecular speed (cm s^–1) formic acid: 35 000 acetic acid: 31 000 ammonia: 58 000     

Single and dual crop coefficients and crop evapotranspiration for wheat and maize in a semi-arid region

In this study, weighing lysimeters were used to investigate the daily crop coefficient and evapotranspiration of wheat and maize in the Fars province, Iran. The locally calibrated Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Penman–Monteith equation was used to calculate the reference crop evapotranspiration (ET_o). Micro-lysimetry was used to measure soil evaporation (E). Transpiration (T) was estimated by the difference between crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) and E. The single crop coefficient (K _c) was calculated by the ratio of ET_c to ET_o. Furthermore, the dual crop coefficient is composed of the soil evaporation coefficient (K _e) and the basal crop coefficients (K _cb) calculated from the ratio of E and T to ET_o, respectively. The maximum measured evapotranspiration rate for wheat was 9.9 mm?day^?1 and for maize was 10 mm?day^?1. The total evaporation from the soil surface was about 30 % of the total wheat ET_c and 29.8 % of total maize ET_c. The single crop coefficient (K _c) values for the initial, mid-, and end-season growth stages of maize were 0.48, 1.40, and 0.31 and those of wheat were 0.77, 1.35, and 0.26, respectively. The measured K _c values for the initial and mid-season stages were different from the FAO recommended values. Therefore, the FAO standard equation for K _c-_mid was calibrated locally for wheat and maize. The K _cb values for the initial, mid-, and end-season growth stages were 0.23, 1.14, and 0.13 for wheat and 0.10, 1.07, and 0.06 for maize, respectively. Furthermore, the FAO procedure for single crop coefficient showed better predictions on a daily basis, although the dual crop coefficient method was more accurate on seasonal scale.     

Atmospheric inorganic nitrogen in marine aerosol and precipitation and its deposition to the North and South Pacific Oceans

Aerosol and rain samples were collected between 48°N and 55°S during the KH-08-2 and MR08-06 cruises conducted over the North and South Pacific Ocean in 2008 and 2009, to estimate dry and wet deposition fluxes of atmospheric inorganic nitrogen (N). Inorganic N in aerosols was composed of ~68% NH₄⁺ and ~32% NO₃^– (median values for all data), with ~81% and ~45% of each species being present on fine mode aerosol, respectively. Concentrations of NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻ in rainwater ranged from 1.7–55 μmol L⁻¹ and 0.16–18 μmol L⁻¹, respectively, accounting for ~87% by NH₄⁺ and ~13% by NO₃⁻ of total inorganic N (median values for all data). A significant correlation (r = 0.74, p < 0.05, n = 10) between NH₄⁺ and methanesulfonic acid (MSA) was found in rainwater samples collected over the South Pacific, whereas no significant correlations were found between NH₄⁺ and MSA in rainwater collected over the subarctic (r = 0.42, p > 0.1, n = 6) and subtropical (r = 0.33, p > 0.5, n = 6) western North Pacific, suggesting that emissions of ammonia (NH₃) by marine biological activity from the ocean could become a significant source of NH₄⁺ over the South Pacific. While NO₃⁻ was the dominant inorganic N species in dry deposition, inorganic N supplied to surface waters by wet deposition was predominantly by NH₄⁺ (42–99% of the wet deposition fluxes for total inorganic N). We estimated mean total (dry + wet) deposition fluxes of atmospheric total inorganic N in the Pacific Ocean to be 32–64 μmol m⁻² d⁻¹, with 66–99% of this by wet deposition, indicating that wet deposition plays a more important role in the supply of atmospheric inorganic N than dry deposition.     

Valley winds and slope winds — Observations and elementary thoughts

Summary This paper presents a state-of-the-art account of valley wind research, with a bias towards a typical large Alpine valley and towards weak-gradient synoptic conditions. At the center of our attention is the quasiperiodic thermal forcing mechanism which drives the local wind system, in particular the role of slope winds and of topographic relief.Slope winds are at the small-scale end of a whole spectrum of thermally direct circulations which act to transmit the sensible heat input along the slopes to the valley atmosphere via compensating vertical motions. We surmise that the dynamics of slope winds, which react instantly to changes of the insolation or radiation balance, is characterized by local, instantaneous equilibria, rather than by conventional entrainment and boundary layer concepts.As described by Steinacker, the area-height distribution of a valley segment is a fundamental geometric factor which affords a quantitative measure of the slope area available for heat exchange, and of the air volume which must be heated or cooled. Using this concept, one can easily explain why the daily range of the valley mean temperature is, on average, more than twice as large as that of the atmosphere over the adjacent plain. This horizontal temperature contrast between plain and valley, reversing sign twice daily, builds up a corresponding pressure contrast hydrostatically, thereby causing up- and downvalley winds.

---

Berg- und Tal- bzw. Hangwinde — Beobachtungen und grundsätzliche Überlegungen

Zusammenfassung Wir berichten über den aktuellen Stand der Talwindforschung mit besonderer Betonung der Verhältnisse in den Alpen und vorzugsweise gradientschwache Wetterlagen betreffend. Einen Schwerpunkt unserer Darstellung bilden die quasiperiodischen thermischen Antriebskräfte der lokalen Windsysteme, vor allem die Rolle der Hangwinde und des Reliefs.Am kleinräumigen Ende eines Spektrums thermisch getriebener direkter Zirkulationsformen stehen die Hangwinde. Sie vermitteln der Talatmosphäre die an den Hängen umgesetzte fühlbare Wärme mittels kompensierender vertikaler Strömungen. Es wird vermutet, daß die Dynamik der Hangwinde eher durch lokale und spontane Gleichgewichtszustände beschrieben werden kann als durch die üblichen Entrainment- und Grenzschichtkonzepte.Steinacker hat gezeigt, daß die Flächen-Höhen-Verteilung von Talabschnitten ein quantitatives Maß der für die Wärmeumsätze zur Verfügung stehenden Hangflächen liefert, und gleichzeitig der abzukühlenden oder zu erwärmenden Luftvolumina. Die in einem Tal im Vergleich zum Vorland mehr als doppelt so große Tagesschwankung der vertikalen Mitteltemperatur kann damit leicht erklärt werden. Dieser horizontale Temperaturunterschied zwischen Ebene und Gebirge mit seinem täglich zweimaligen Vorzeichenwechsel baut hydrostatisch die entsprechenden Druckunterschiede auf, welche die Talein- und Talauswinde antreiben.

---

---

With 14 Figures     

Run-turning points and turning periods of flood and drought years

Summary Based on the theory of recurrent events, run-turning points and turning periods are described and applied to the data of Shanghai. It is shown that in the case of this application a good fit of the mathematical models of turning points and turning periods exists. An important application of this theory to climatology is that the double negative binomial distribution can be suggested. Examining some more details of this example it is not difficult to prove that the parameters (means and variances) of run-turning points and turning periods are useful tools for flood/drought analyses, while the climatic prediction is unreliable, because of unpredictable cyclical variation components. The problem of the climatic prediction by means of quasi-periodicities has been discussed also in connection with the turning periods.

---

Zusammenfassung Ausgehend von der Theorie sich wiederholender Ereignisse wurden Wendepunkte und Wiederholungszeiten beschrieben und auf die Daten von Shangai angewandt. Es zeigte sich dabei gute Übereinstimmung mit mathematischen Modellen der Wendepunkte und der Wiederholungszeiten. Eine wichtige klimatologische Anwendung dieser Theorie liegt in der Annahme einer doppelten negativen Binominalverteilung. Weitere Details zeigen, daß die Parameter (Mittel und Varianzen) der Wendepunkte und der Wiederholungszeiten brauchbare Instrumente zur Analyse von Flut- und Dürrejahren sind, während die Klimavorhersagen aufgrund unvorhersagbarer zyklischer Varianzkomponenten unzuverlässig sind. Das Problem der Klimavorhersage über Quasiperiodizitäten wird in Zusammenhang mit Wiederholungszeiten gleichfalls angesprochen.

---

---

With 1 Figure     

归一化植被指数与降水量、土壤湿度的关系

归一化植被指数是描述植被绿度及生长状况的指数，由于植被生长依赖于环境条件因此ＮＤＶＩ与环境参量的关系是应用ＮＤＶＩ监测环境状况的基础。分别应用位于中国北部的干旱及半干旱地区的降水量资料对ＮＤＶＩ与降水量之间的关系地分析，结果表明仅在干旱半干旱地区生长季末的累积降水量与累积ＮＤＶＩ存在着显著的非线性关系，相关系数为０．７８。     

The summer radiation and heat budget of the Arctic and Antarctic

Summary For two pairs of arctic and antarctic stations, one coastal and one mountainous, an intercomparison between the summer radiation and surface energy budgets was carried out. The station pairs were similar in both latitude and altitude. It was found that the global radiation was larger for both antarctic stations. This is the result of a smaller Earth-Sun distance and cleaner atmosphere in Antarctica. Cloudiness, and for the arctic mountainous station substantial screening of the sun, also contributed. Further, large differences were found in the albedo. In the Arctic, the summer surfaces considered were bare tundra and melting snow, with respective albedos of 20 and 59%, while in Antarctica the surfaces considered were melting and dry snow, with albedos of 67 and 83% respectively.This results in a less positive radiation balance at both antarctic stations, despite the higher incoming global radiation. In turn, less sensible heat transfer from the surface to air results in lower temperatures in the Antarctic. The reduced rate of evaporation in Antarctica results in a drier atmosphere and less cloudy conditions.

---

Zusammenfassung Für jeweils zwei arktische und antarktische Stationen, von denen jeweils eine an der Küste, eine in den Bergen liegt, wurden Vergleiche in bezug auf sommerliche Strahlungs- und Oberflächenenergiebilanz angestellt. Die Stationen liegen auf vergleichbarer Höhe und Breite. Es hat sich gezeigt, daß die Gesamt-Einstrahlung in den antarktischen Stationen größer war, aufgrund geringerer Erde-Sonnen-Distanz und der reineren Atmosphäre. Bewölkung und vor allem die für die arktischen Gebirgsstationen ausschlaggebende Sonnenabschirmung tragen auch zu dieser Differenz bei. Weiters wurden starke Albedounterschiede beobachtet. In der Arktis waren die Beobachtungsoberflächen im Sommer offene Tundra und schmelzender Schnee mit einer Albedo von 20 bzw. 59%, während die Antarktisoberflächen, nasser und trockener Schnee, eine Albedo von 67 bzw. 83% aufwiesen.Dies ergibt eine weniger positive Strahlungsbilanz für die beiden antarktischen Stationen trotz höherer Gesamteinstrahlung. Infolgedessen bewirkt die geringere Wärmeabgabe des Bodens an die Luft niedere Temperaturen in der Antarktis. Geringere Verdunstung ergibt somit geringere Bewölkung und eine trockenere Atmosphäre über der Antarktis.

---

---

With 5 Figures     

FT-IR Study of the Kinetics and Products of the Reactions of Dimethylsulphide, Dimethylsulphoxide and Dimethylsulphone with Br and BrO

Kinetics and products of the gas-phase reactions of dimethylsulphide (DMS), dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) and dimethylsulphone (DMSO₂) with Br atoms and BrO radicals in air have beeninvestigated using on-line Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) as analytical technique at 740 ± 5 Torr total pressure and at 296 ± 3 K in a480 L reaction chamber. Using a relative rate method for determining the rate constants; the following values (expressed in cm³molecule^–1 s^–1) were found: k_DMS+Br = (4.9 ±1.0) ×10^–14, k_DMSO + Br < 6 × 10^–14,k_{DMSO 2} + Br 1 × 10^–15,k_DMSO + BrO = (1.0 ± 0.3) × 10^–14 andk_{DMSO 2} + BrO 3 × 10^–15 (allvalues are given with one on the experimental data). DMSO, SO₂, COS, CH₃SBr andCH₃SO₂Br were identified as the main sulphur containing products of the oxidation of DMS by Br atoms. From the reaction between DMSO and Br atoms, DMSO₂and CH₃SO₂Br were the only sulphur containing products thatwere identified. DMSO, DMSO₂ and SO₂ were identified as themain sulphur containing products of the reaction between DMS and BrO.DMSO₂ was found to be the only product of the reaction between DMSO and BrO. For the reactions of DMSO₂ with Br and BrO no products were identified because the reactions were too slow.The implications of these results for atmospheric chemistry are discussed.     

Local and regional sources of fine and coarse particulate matter based on traffic and background monitoring

The aim of this study was to identify local and exogenous sources affecting particulate matter (PM) levels in five major cities of Northern Europe namely: London, Paris, Hamburg, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Besides local emissions, PM profile at urban and suburban areas of the European Union (EU) is also influenced by regional PM sources due to atmospheric transport, thus geographical city distribution is of a great importance. At each city, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, NO₂, SO₂, CO and O₃ air pollution data from two air pollution monitoring stations of the EU network were used. Different background characteristics of the selected two sampling sites at each city facilitated comparisons, providing a more exact analysis of PM sources. Four source apportionment methods: Pearson correlations among the levels of particulates and gaseous pollutants, characterisation of primal component analysis components, long-range transport analysis and extrapolation of PM size distribution ratios were applied. In general, fine (PM_2.5) and coarse (PM₁₀) particles were highly correlated, thus common sources are suggested. Combustion-originated gaseous pollutants (CO, NO₂, SO₂) were strongly associated to PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, primarily at areas severely affected by traffic. On the contrary, at background stations neighbouring important natural sources of particles or situated in suburban areas with rural background, natural emissions of aerosols were indicated. Series of daily PM_2.5/PM₁₀ ratios showed that minimum fraction values were detected during warm periods, due to higher volumes of airborne biogenic PM coarse, mainly at stations with important natural sources of particles in their vicinity. Hybrid single-particle Lagrangian integrated trajectory model was used, in order to extract 4-day backward air mass trajectories that arrived in the five cities which are under study during days with recorded PM₁₀ exceedances. At all five cities, a significantly large fraction of those trajectories were classified in short- and medium-range clusters, thus transportation of particulates along with slow moving air masses was identified. A finding that supports the assumption of long-range transport is that, at background stations, long-range transportation effects were stronger, in comparison to traffic stations, due to less local particle emissions. Short-range trajectories associated to PM transport in Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hamburg were mainly of a continental origin. All three cities were approached by slow moving air masses originated from Poland and the Czech Republic, whereas Copenhagen and Stockholm were also influenced by short-range trajectories from Germany and France and from Jutland Peninsula and Scandinavian Peninsula, respectively. London and Paris are located to the north-west part of Europe. Trajectories of short and medium length arrived to these two megacities mainly through France, Germany, UK and North Atlantic.     

Links between rainfall variability on intraseasonal and interannual scales over western Tanzania and regional circulation and SST patterns

Summary This study investigates the circulation anomalies associated with the intraseasonal evolution of wet and dry years over western Tanzania (29–37° E, 11.5–4.75° S) and how the onset and withdrawal of the rainy season as well as its wet spell characteristics are modified. It is found that for wet years, the rains begin earlier and end later, with strong wet spells occurring during the season, and there tend to be a greater number of moderate wet spells (although not necessarily more intense wet spells) than in dry years. In dry years, late onset and early cessation of the rainy season occur, often with an extended dry spell soon after the onset, and there tend to be a greater number of dry spells within the season. Large negative outgoing long wave radiation (OLR) anomaly values tend to be located between 20° and 40° E with anomalous westerly flow at 850 hPa occurring across the continent from 10° E to the tropical western Indian Ocean during wet spells in the anomalously wet seasons. Anomalously dry seasons are characterised by large positive OLR anomalies over 30–50° E as well as easterly anomalies at 850 hPa and westerly anomalies at 200 hPa. Eastward propagating intraseasonal anomalies are slower during the wet years implying that the convection remains over Tanzania longer. On the intraseasonal scale, Hovmoeller analyses of OLR and 850 and 200 hPa zonal wind indicate that convection over western Tanzania may be associated with a flux of moisture from the tropical southeast Atlantic and Congo basin followed by weak easterlies from the tropical western Indian Ocean.On interannual scales, wet (dry) years are characterized over the Indian Ocean by weaker (stronger) equatorial westerlies and weaker (stronger) trades that lead to less (more) export of equatorial moisture away from East Africa and increased (decreased) low-level moisture flux convergence over southern Tanzania, respectively. These anomalies arise from an anticyclonic (cyclonic) anomaly over the tropical western Indian Ocean during wet (dry) austral summers that may be related to cool (warm) SST anomalies there. Large scale modulation of the Indian Ocean Walker cell is also evident in both cases, but particularly for the dry years.Current affiliation: Tanzania Meteorological Agency, P.O. Box 3056, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania     

Kinetic Studies of OH and O3 Reactions with Allyl and Isopropenyl Acetate

Rate coefficients have been measured for the gas phasereactions of hydroxyl (OH) radicals and ozone with twounsaturated esters, allyl acetate(CH₃C(O)OCH₂CH=CH₂) and isopropenylacetate (CH₃C(O)OC(CH₃)=CH₂). The OHexperiments were carried out using the pulsed laserphotolysis – laser induced fluorescence technique overthe temperature range 243–372 K and the kinetic dataused to derive the following Arrhenius expressions (inunits of cm³ molecule^-1 s^-1): allylacetate, k ₁ = (2.33 ± 0.27) ×10^-12 exp[(732 ± 34)/T]; and isopropenyl acetate,k ₂ = (4.52 ± 0.62) × 10^-12exp[(809 ± 39)/T]. At 298 K, the rate coefficients obtained (inunits of 10^-12 cm³ molecule^-1 s^-1)are: k ₁ = (27.1 ± 3.0) and k ₂= (69.6± 9.4). The relative rate technique has been usedto determine rate coefficients for the reaction ofozone with the acetates. Using methyl vinyl ketone asthe reference compound and a value of4.8 × 10^-18 cm³ molecule^-1s^-1 asthe rate coefficient for its reaction with O₃,the following rate coefficients were derived at 298 ± 4 K (in units of10^-18 cm³molecule^-1 s^-1): allyl acetate, (2.4 ± 0.7) andisopropenyl acetate (0.7 ± 0.2). Theresults are discussed in terms of structure-activityrelationships and used to derive atmospheric lifetimesfor the acetates.     

Field measurements of NO and NO2 emissions from fertilized and unfertilized soils

Field measurements of NO and NO₂ emissions from soils have been performed in Finthen near Mainz (F.R.G.) and in Utrera near Seville (Spain). The applied method employed a flow box coupled with a chemiluminescent NO _x detector allowing the determination of minimum flux rates of 2 g N m^-2 h^-1 for NO and 3 g m^-2 h^-1 for NO₂.The NO and NO₂ flux rates were found to be strongly dependent on soil surface temperatures and showed strong daily variations with maximum values during the early afternoon and minimum values during the early morning. Between the daily variation patterns of NO and NO₂, there was a time lag of about 2 h which seem to be due to the different physico-chemical properties of NO and NO₂. The apparent activation energy of NO emission calculated from the Arrhenius equation ranged between 44 and 103 kJ per mole. The NO and NO₂ emission rates were positively correlated with soil moisture in the upper soil layer.The measurements carried out in August in Finthen clearly indicate the establishment of NO and NO₂ equilibrium mixing ratios which appeared to be on the order of 20 ppbv for NO and 10 ppbv for NO₂. The soil acted as a net sink for ambient air NO and NO₂ mixing ratios higher than the equilibrium values and a net source for NO and NO₂ mixing ratios lower than the equilibrium values. This behaviour as well as the observation of equilibrium mixing ratios clearly indicate that NO and NO₂ are formed and destroyed concurrently in the soil.Average flux rates measured on bare unfertilized soils were about 10 g N m^-2 h^-1 for NO₂ and 8 g N m^-2 h^-1 for NO. The NO and NO₂ flux rates were significantly reduced on plant covered soil plots. In some cases, the flux rates of both gases became negative indicating that the vegetation may act as a sink for atmospheric NO and NO₂.Application of mineral fertilizers increased the NO and NO₂ emission rates. Highest emission rates were observed for urea followed by NH₄Cl, NH₄NO₃ and NaNO₃. The fertilizer loss rates ranged from 0.1% for NaNO₃ to 5.4% for urea. Vegetation cover substantially reduced the fertilizer loss rate.The total NO _x emission from soil is estimated to be 11 Tg N yr^-1. This figure is an upper limit and includes the emission of 7 Tg N yr^-1 from natural unfertilized soils, 2 Tg N yr^-1 from fertilized soils as well as 2 Tg N yr^-1 from animal excreta. Despite its speculative character, this estimation indicates that NO _x emission by soil is important for tropospheric chemistry especially in remote areas where the NO _x production by other sources is comparatively small.     

Carboxylic Acids: Seasonal Variation and Relation to Chemical and Meteorological Parameters

Formic and acetic acid measured as daily averages in 1993–1994show equal and highly correlated concentrations up to 3 ppb in the summer(May–August). In the winter (October–March) the formicacid/acetic acid ratio was 0.6 and the formic acid concentrations wereusually below 1 ppb. In winter the carboxylic acids correlate withO_x, NO_y, SO₂ and particulatesulphur. The main sources are suggested to be ozonolysis of anthropogenicalkenes and reactions between peroxyacetyl radicals and RO₂radicals. In spring–summer the carboxylic acids correlate withO₃, O_x, HNO₃, PAN,NO_y, SO₂, particulate sulphur and temperature.In addition to the sources of the winter a contribution from ozonolysis ofbiogenic alkenes is likely. Quite similar formic acid/acetic acid ratios forall wind directions suggest that the source(s) are atmospheric oxidationprocesses distributed over large areas. The highest concentrations occurringfor winds from east to south and the correlation with e.g., particulatesulphur indicate chemical production in polluted air masses during longrange transport.     

Magnetic and ionospheric storms

Summary The characteristic ionospheric storm variation of F₂ Layer ionisation at a temperate latitude station is described and compared with corresponding effects at other latitudes. The well known marked variability of the F₂ Layer critical frequency is attributed, in part, to the operation of the ionospheric storm mechanism. The lack of correlation between variations of F₂ ionisation at two sites, at a considerable distance apart, is due to the fact that ionospheric storm manifestation is found to vary, in sign and magnitude, with geomagnetic latitude, and is also subject to a diurnal control determined by local time.

---

Zusammenfassung Die charakteristische Ionosphärensturmvariation der Ionisation der F₂-Schicht an einer Station der gemäßigten Breite wird beschrieben und mit entsprechenden Vorgängen in anderen Breiten verglichen. Die bekannte eindeutige Veränderlichkeit der kritischen Frequenz der F₂-Schicht wird teilweise der Wirkung des Mechanismus der Ionosphärenstürme zugeschrieben. Das Fehlen einer Korrelation zwischen den Variationen der F₂-Schicht an zwei in beträchtlicher Entfernung voneinander gelegenen Orten erklärt sich aus der Tatsache, daß das Auftreten der Ionosphärenstürme nach Vorzeichen und Ausmaß mit der geomagnetischen Breite variiert und außerdem einem ortszeitlich bedingten Tageseinfluß unterliegt.

---

Résumé On décrit la variation la variation caractéristique d'ionisation de la couche F₂ lors des tempêtes ionosphériques observées à une station de latitude moyenne et on la compare aux phénomènes analogues à d'autres latitudes. La variabilité marquée et bien connue de la fréquence critique de la couche F₂ est partiellement attribuée au mécanisme des tempêtes ionosphériques. L'absence de corrélation entre les variations de la couche F₂ en deux endroits considérablement éloignés l'un de l'autre s'explique par le fait que l'apparition des tempêtes ionosphériques varie en signe et en intensité avec la latitude

---

---

With 4 figures.

---

Dedicated to Professor Dr.H. Benndorf on the occasion of his eightieth birthday.     

Interactive effects of elevated [CO2] and temperature on growth and development of a short- and long-season peanut cultivar

Temperature and CO₂ are two of the main environmental factors associated with climate change. It is generally expected that elevated [CO₂] will increase crop production. However, other environmental factors such as temperature along with management practices could further modify a crop’s response to CO₂. The goal of this study was to determine the interactive effects of elevated [CO₂] and above-optimum temperature on growth, development and yield of two peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivars, e.g., Pronto and Georgia Green. One of the objectives was to determine if there was any variation in response between these two cultivars with respect to possible adaptation to climate change. Peanut plants were grown in controlled environment chambers in the University of Georgia Envirotron under conditions of non-limiting water and nutrient supply. Plants were exposed to day/night air temperatures of 33/21°C (T _A), 35.5/23.5°C (T _A + 2.5°C), and 38/26°C (T _A + 5°C) along with CO₂ treatments of 400 and 700 μmol CO₂ mol^???1 air. The selected range of temperatures was based on the temperatures that are common for southwest Georgia during the summer months. The results showed that LAI of both cultivars responded positively, e.g., 28.3% for Pronto and 49.3% for Georgia Green to elevated [CO₂]. Overall, elevated [CO₂] alone resulted in a significant increase in total biomass at final harvest across all temperatures (P?< 0.0001), but decreased final seed yield (P?< 0.0005), except for Georgia Green at (T _A + 5°C). The higher temperatures compared to T _A reduced the relative response of total biomass to CO₂ for both cultivars. It can be concluded that final seed yield response to CO₂ depends on the sensitivity of individual cultivars to temperature, especially during the reproductive development stage.     

Windspeed dependence of heat and mass transfer through coats and clothing

Penetration of a layer of fibre by wind reduces its effectiveness as a barrier to heat flow. In the literature, the dependence of coat or clothing insulation I(u) on windspeed u is usually described by a relation of the form I(u) = I(0) – au ^1/2, where a is a constant. Re-analysis reveals that it is more appropriate to treat coat conductance (proportional to 1/I) as a linear function of windspeed. Vapour conductance can also be treated as a linear function of windspeed.On leave from Washington State University, Department of Agronomy and Soils.     

Observations and estimations of PAR and solar visible radiation in North China

Integrated observations were made of solar irradiance (including photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), visible radiation (VIS), global radiation (G), etc.), and meteorological parameters at 4 stations in North China between September, 2004 and October, 2006. The ratios of hourly sum of PAR to G (H _PAR/H), VIS to G (H _VIS/H), and PAR to VIS (H _PAR/H _VIS) varied smoothly but exhibited significant diurnal, daily, seasonal variations, and were influenced by several factors, such as water vapor, cloud, haze, etc. The objective of this paper is to develop empirical formulas for estimation of hourly and daily sums of PAR and VIS and their relationship under all sky conditions in North China. The calculated PAR and VIS were in agreement with measured values, the relative biases were 13.0?% and 12.4?% for hourly sums, 9.9?% and 9.0?% for daily values, respectively.     

Temporal and comparative analysis of thunderstorms and some related phenomena in Zaria,Jos, and Kaduna (Nigeria)

Summary This is a temporal and comparative analysis of thunderstorms and some related phenomena in three towns in the northern part of Nigeria.On a diurnal basis, the three stations show both an afternoon and nocturnal maximum with the nocturnal maximum occurring at 0000–0100 LST for all phenomena.Seasonally, while thundery activities peak first in Jos, Kaduna and Zaria in that order, lightning and squalls peak in the reverse order. This implies that for thundery activities, an ample amount of moisture is required while limited moisture is needed for the initiation of lightning and squalls.Compared to Jos and Kaduna, Zaria possesses a higher amplitude for all the three phenomena under consideration. This stems from the fact that Zaria is closer to the centre of the disturbance line generating zone than the other stations.The diurnal cycle of occurrence of thunderstorms and related phenomena results from the diurnal cycle of insolation in the cloudless area in the vicinity of an easterly wave and radiational forcing of the cloudy region of the perturbed area.

---

Zusammenfassung Es handelt sich um eine zeitliche und vergleichende Analyse von Gewittern und mit ihnen verbundenen Phänomenen aus drei Städten im nördlichen Teil Nigerias. Im Tagesgang zeigen die drei Stationen ein Nachmittagsund ein Nachtmaximum, wobei das Nachtmaximum für alle Phänomene zwischen 0 und 1 Uhr Lokalzeit auftritt.Im Jahresgang wandert das Maximum der Gewitteraktivität von Jos über Kaduna nach Zaria, während Blitze und Squalls ihr Maximum in umgekehrter Reihenfolge haben. Für Gewitter ist offenbar reichlich Feuchtigkeit notwendig, während für die Entstehung von Blitzen und Squalls geringere Mengen ausreichen.Im Vergleich mit Jos und Kaduna besitzt Zaria für alle drei behandelten Phänomene die höchste Amplitude. Das rührt daher, daß Zaria näher der die Störungslinie erzeugenden Zone liegt als die anderen Stationen.Der Tagesgang der Gewitteraktivität und der anderen Phänomene entsteht durch den Tagesgang der Einstrahlung in der wolkenlosen Zone nahe einer östlichen Welle und durch den Einfluß der bewölkten Gebiete im Störungsbereich.

---

---

With 10 Figures