3D seismic analysis of the structure and evolution of a salt-influenced normal fault zone: A test of competing fault growth models

In this paper we determine the structure and evolution of a normal fault system by applying qualitative and quantitative fault analysis techniques to a 3D seismic reflection dataset from the Suez Rift, Egypt. Our analysis indicates that the October Fault Zone is composed of two fault systems that are locally decoupled across a salt-bearing interval of Late Miocene (Messinian) age. The sub-salt system offsets pre-rift crystalline basement, and was active during the Late Oligocene-early Middle Miocene. It is composed of four, planar, NW–SE-striking segments that are hard- linked by N–S-striking segments, and up to 2 km of displacement occurs at top basement, suggesting that this fault system nucleated at or, more likely, below this structural level. The supra-salt system was active during the Pliocene-Holocene, and is composed of four, NW–SE-striking, listric fault segments, which are soft-linked by unbreached relay zones. Segments in the supra-salt fault system nucleated within Pliocene strata and have maximum throws of up to 482 m. Locally, the segments of the supra-salt fault system breach the Messinian salt to hard-link downwards with the underlying, sub-salt fault system, thus forming the upper part of a fault zone composed of: (i) a single, amalgamated fault system below the salt and (ii) a fault system composed of multiple soft-linked segments above the salt. Analysis of throw-distance (T-x) and throw-depth (T-z) plots for the supra-salt fault system, isopach maps of the associated growth strata and backstripping of intervening relay zones indicates that these faults rapidly established their lengths during the early stages of their slip history. The fault tips were then effectively ‘pinned’ and the faults accumulated displacement via predominantly downward propagation. We interpret that the October Fault Zone had the following evolutionary trend; (i) growth of the sub-salt fault system during the Oligocene-to-early Middle Miocene; (ii) cessation of activity on the sub-salt fault system during the Middle Miocene-to-?Early Pliocene; (iii) stretching of the sub- and supra-salt intervals during Pliocene regional extension, which resulted in mild reactivation of the sub-salt fault system and nucleation of the segmented supra-salt fault system, which at this time was geometrically decoupled from the sub-salt fault system; and (iv) Pliocene-to-Holocene growth of the supra-salt fault system by downwards vertical tip line propagation, which resulted in downward breaching of the salt and dip-linkage with the sub-salt fault system. The structure of the October Fault Zone and the rapid establishment of supra-salt fault lengths are compatible with the predictions of the coherent fault model, although we note that individual segments in the supra-salt array grew in accordance with the isolated fault model. Our study thereby indicates that both coherent and isolated fault models may be applicable to the growth of kilometre-scale, basin-bounding faults. Furthermore, we highlight the role that fault reactivation and dip-linkage in mechanically layered sequences can play in controlling the three-dimensional geometry of normal faults.     

Influence of host lithofacies on fault rock variation in carbonate fault zones: A case study from the Island of Malta

Relatively few studies have examined fault rock microstructures in carbonates. Understanding fault core production helps predict the hydraulic behaviour of faults and the potential for reservoir compartmentalisation. Normal faults on Malta, ranging from <1 m to 90 m displacement, cut two carbonate lithofacies, micrite-dominated and grain-dominated carbonates, allowing the investigation of fault rock evolution with increasing displacement in differing lithofacies. Lithological heterogeneity leads to a variety of deformation mechanisms. Nine different fault rock types have been identified, with a range of deformation microstructures along an individual slip surface. The deformation style, and hence type of fault rock produced, is a function of host rock texture, specifically grain size and sorting, porosity and uniaxial compressive strength. Homogeneously fine-grained micrtie-dominated carbonates are characterised by dispersed deformation with large fracture networks that develop into breccias. Alternatively, this lithofacies is commonly recrystallised. In contrast, in the coarse-grained, heterogeneous grain-dominated carbonates the development of faulting is characterised by localised deformation, creating protocataclasite and cataclasite fault rocks. Cementation also occurs within some grain-dominated carbonates close to and on slip surfaces. Fault rock variation is a function of displacement as well as juxtaposed lithofacies. An increase in fault rock variability is observed at higher displacements, potentially creating a more transmissible fault, which opposes what may be expected in siliciclastic and crystalline faults. Significant heterogeneity in the fault rock types formed is likely to create variable permeability along fault-strike, potentially allowing across-fault fluid flow. However, areas with homogeneous fault rocks may generate barriers to fluid flow.     

Active transfer fault zone linking a segmented extensional system (Betics, southern Spain): Insight into heterogeneous extension driven by edge delamination

Pliocene and Quaternary tectonic structures mainly consisting of segmented northwest–southeast normal faults, and associated seismicity in the central Betics do not agree with the transpressive tectonic nature of the Africa–Eurasia plate boundary in the Ibero-Maghrebian region. Active extensional deformation here is heterogeneous, individual segmented normal faults being linked by relay ramps and transfer faults, including oblique-slip and both dextral and sinistral strike-slip faults. Normal faults extend the hanging wall of an extensional detachment that is the active segment of a complex system of successive WSW-directed extensional detachments which have thinned the Betic upper crust since middle Miocene. Two areas, which are connected by an active 40-km long dextral strike-slip transfer fault zone, concentrate present-day extension. Both the seismicity distribution and focal mechanisms agree with the position and regime of the observed faults. The activity of the transfer zone during middle Miocene to present implies a mode of extension which must have remained substantially the same over the entire period. Thus, the mechanisms driving extension should still be operating. Both the westward migration of the extensional loci and the high asymmetry of the extensional systems can be related to edge delamination below the south Iberian margin coupled with roll-back under the Alborán Sea; involving the asymmetric westward inflow of asthenospheric material under the margins.     

Fault growth and interactions in a multiphase rift fault network: Horda Platform,Norwegian North Sea

Physical models predict that multiphase rifts that experience a change in extension direction between stretching phases will typically develop non-colinear normal fault sets. Furthermore, multiphase rifts will display a greater frequency and range of styles of fault interactions than single-phase rifts. Although these physical models have yielded useful information on the evolution of fault networks in map view, the true 3D geometry of the faults and associated interactions are poorly understood. Here, we use an integrated 3D seismic reflection and borehole dataset to examine a range of fault interactions that occur in a natural multiphase fault network in the northern Horda Platform, northern North Sea. In particular we aim to: i) determine the range of styles of fault interaction that occur between non-colinear faults; ii) examine the typical geometries and throw patterns associated with each of these different styles; and iii) highlight the differences between single-phase and multiphase rift fault networks. Our study focuses on a ca. 350 km² region around the >60 km long, N–S-striking Tusse Fault, a normal fault system that was active in the Permian–Triassic and again in the Late Jurassic-to-Early Cretaceous. The Tusse Fault is one of a series of large (>1500 m throw) N–S-striking faults forming part of the northern Horda Platform fault network, which includes numerous smaller (2–10 km long), lower throw (<100 m), predominantly NW–SE-striking faults that were only active during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. We examine how the 2^nd-stage NW–SE-striking faults grew, interacted and linked with the N–S-striking Tusse Fault, documenting a range of interaction styles including mechanical and kinematic isolation, abutment, retardation and reactivated relays. Our results demonstrate that: i) isolated, and abutting interactions are the most common fault interaction styles in the northern Horda Platform; ii) pre-existing faults can act as sites of nucleation for 2^nd-stage faults or may form mechanical barriers to propagation; iii) the throw distribution on reactivated 1^st-stage faults will be modified in a predictable manner if they are intersected or influenced by 2^nd-stage faults; iv) sites of fault linkage and relay-breaching associated with the first phase of extension can act as preferential nucleation sites for 2^nd-stage faults; and v) the development of fault intersections is a dynamic process, involving the gradual transition from one style to another.     

Geometry and architecture of faults in a syn-rift normal fault array: The Nukhul half-graben, Suez rift, Egypt

The geometry and architecture of a well exposed syn-rift normal fault array in the Suez rift is examined. At pre-rift level, the Nukhul fault consists of a single zone of intense deformation up to 10 m wide, with a significant monocline in the hanging wall and much more limited folding in the footwall. At syn-rift level, the fault zone is characterised by a single discrete fault zone less than 2 m wide, with damage zone faults up to approximately 200 m into the hanging wall, and with no significant monocline developed. The evolution of the fault from a buried structure with associated fault-propagation folding, to a surface-breaking structure with associated surface faulting, has led to enhanced bedding-parallel slip at lower levels that is absent at higher levels. Strain is enhanced at breached relay ramps and bends inherited from pre-existing structures that were reactivated during rifting. Damage zone faults observed within the pre-rift show ramp-flat geometries associated with contrast in competency of the layers cut and commonly contain zones of scaly shale or clay smear. Damage zone faults within the syn-rift are commonly very straight, and may be discrete fault planes with no visible fault rock at the scale of observation, or contain relatively thin and simple zones of scaly shale or gouge. The geometric and architectural evolution of the fault array is interpreted to be the result of (i) the evolution from distributed trishear deformation during upward propagation of buried fault tips to surface faulting after faults breach the surface; (ii) differences in deformation response between lithified pre-rift units that display high competence contrasts during deformation, and unlithified syn-rift units that display low competence contrasts during deformation, and; (iii) the history of segmentation, growth and linkage of the faults that make up the fault array. This has important implications for fluid flow in fault zones.     

Rift fault geometry and evolution in the Cretaceous Potiguar Basin (NE Brazil) based on fault growth models

We investigated the Cretaceous Potiguar Basin in the Equatorial margin of Brazil to understand how the geometry of major faults evolved to form the basin internal architecture. Previous studies pointed out that the rift is an asymmetrical half-graben elongated along the NE-SW direction. We used 2D seismic, well logs and 3D gravity modeling to analyze faults that constitute the rift boundary and determine their maximum displacement (D_max) and length (L) ratio in the Potiguar Rift. We constrained the 3D gravity modeling with well data and the interpretation of seismic sections. The difference of the fault displacement and depth of the basement obtained in the gravity model is in the order of 10% compared to seismic and well data. The fault-growth curves allowed us to divide the faulted rift border into four main fault systems, which provide roughly similar D_max/L ratios. Fault-growth curves suggest that a regional uniform tectonic mechanism influenced growth of these faults. These fault systems are composed of minor faults that we define as segments. The variation of the displacements along the fault segments indicates that the fault systems were formed independently during rift initiation and were linked by hard and soft linkages. The latter formed relay ramps. In the interconnection zones the D_max/L ratios are highest due to interference of fault segment motions. We divided the evolution of the Potiguar Rift into five stages based on these ratios and correlated them with the major tectonic stages of the breakup between South America and Africa in the Early Cretaceous.     

Geometry and growth of an inner rift fault pattern: the Kino Sogo Fault Belt, Turkana Rift (North Kenya)

A quantitative analysis is presented of the scaling properties of faults within the exceptionally well-exposed Kino Sogo Fault Belt (KSFB) from the eastern part of the 200-km-wide Turkana rift, Northern Kenya. The KSFB comprises a series of horsts and grabens within an arcuate 40-km-wide zone that dissects Miocene–Pliocene lavas overlying an earlier asymmetric fault block. The fault belt is 150 km long and is bounded to the north and south by transverse (N50°E and N140°E) fault zones. An unusual feature of the fault system is that it accommodates very low strains (<1%) and since it is no older than 3 Ma, it could be characterised by extension rates and strain rates that are as low as 0.1 mm/yr and 10⁻¹⁶ s⁻¹, respectively. Despite its immaturity, the fault system comprises segmented fault arrays with lengths of up to 40 km, with individual fault segments ranging up to 9 km in length. Fault length distributions subscribe to a negative exponential scaling law, as opposed to the power law scaling typical of other fault systems. The relatively long faults and segments are, however, characterised by maximum throws of no more than 100 m, providing displacement/length ratios that are significantly below those of other fault systems. The under-displaced nature of the fault system is attributed to early stage rapid fault propagation possibly arising from reactivation of earlier underlying basement fabrics/faults or magmatic-related fractures. Combined with the structural control exercised by pre-existing transverse structures, the KSFB demonstrates the strong influence of older structures on rift fault system growth and the relatively rapid development of under-displaced fault geometries at low strains.     

Late Panafrican evolution of the main Hoggar fault zones: Implications of magnetic fabric study in the In Telloukh pluton (Tin Serririne basin, Algeria)

The Late Panafrican evolution of the Hoggar shield is characterized by emplacement of magmatic intrusions and by occurrence of major shear zones separating different terranes. In Telloukh granite is close to the In Guezzam faults (western border of the Tin Serririne basin). Analysis of its visible and magnetic fabrics suggests an emplacement mode and deformation that are not related to the In Guezzam faults, but most likely to a N–S compression, an event not yet identified. Dioritic dykes crosscutting the granite have a very different magnetic fabric, which is related on the contrary to dextral strike-slip movements along the In Guezzam faults. In both cases, no visible fabric can be correlated with the magnetic fabric, which has been likely acquired during late magmatic stages. This magnetic fabric was not significantly affected by the tectonic events that took place after entire crystallization of the magma. The In Guezzam faults and the major 7°30 and 4°50 shear zones are close to intrusions such as In Telloukh dykes and the Alous En Tides and Tesnou plutons where quite similar magnetic fabrics are observed, all related with dextral strike-slip movements along these structures.     

North-south transfer zones and paleo-morphological reconstruction of the Xylokastro area (Corinth Gulf, Greece)

A large number of studies have documented the structural and sedimentary architecture of the Corinth Gulf, especially the major E–W trending normal faults important in accommodating the main extensional strain and associated growth of the Gilbert fan deltas. However, the role of several N–S oriented structures that crop out at the surface and are detectable at depth by seismic reflection and gravity surveys are not clearly understood. Based on new geological data, collected near Xylokastro, we describe the N–S oriented tectonic activity of this area. The mapped inland faults correspond to off-shore structures identified in re-interpreted seismic lines and appear to have acted as a major transfer zone during the opening of the Corinth Gulf. Reconstruction of the paleo-topography based on sedimentary facies and the environment of clay mineral formation suggest these transfer zones played an important role in controlling both local structural relief and depositional conditions of the Gilbert fan deltas.     

The presence, characteristics and earthquake implications of the St. Lawrence fault zone within and near Lake Ontario (Canada–USA)

Questions persist concerning the earthquake potential of the populous and industrial Lake Ontario (Canada–USA) area. Pertinent to those questions is whether the major fault zone that extends along the St. Lawrence River valley, herein named the St. Lawrence fault zone, continues upstream along the St. Lawrence River valley at least as far as Lake Ontario or terminates near Cornwall (Ontario, Canada)–Massena (NY, USA). New geological studies uncovered paleotectonic bedrock faults that are parallel to, and lie within, the projection of that northeast-oriented fault zone between Cornwall and northeastern Lake Ontario, suggesting that the fault zone continues into Lake Ontario. The aforementioned bedrock faults range from meters to tens of kilometers in length and display kinematically incompatible displacements, implying that the fault zone was periodically reactivated in the study area. Beneath Lake Ontario the Hamilton–Presqu'ile fault lines up with the St. Lawrence fault zone and projects to the southwest where it coincides with the Dundas Valley (Ontario, Canada). The Dundas Valley extends landward from beneath the western end of the lake and is marked by a vertical stratigraphic displacement across its width. The alignment of the Hamilton–Presqu'ile fault with the St. Lawrence fault zone strongly suggests that the latter crosses the entire length of Lake Ontario and continues along the Dundas Valley.The Rochester Basin, an east–northeast-trending linear trough in the southeastern corner of Lake Ontario, lies along the southern part of the St. Lawrence fault zone. Submarine dives in May 1997 revealed inclined layers of glaciolacustrine clay along two different scarps within the basin. The inclined layers strike parallel to the long dimension of the basin, and dip about 20° to the north–northwest suggesting that they are the result of rigid-body rotation consequent upon post-glacial faulting. Those post-glacial faults are growth faults as demonstrated by the consistently greater thickness, unit-by-unit, of unconsolidated sediments on the downthrown (northwest) side of the faults relative to their counterparts on the upthrown (southeast) side. Underneath the western part of Lake Ontario is a monoclinal warp that displaces the glacial and post-glacial sediments, and the underlying bedrock–sediment interface. Because of the post-glacial growth faults and the monoclinal warp the St. Lawrence fault zone is inferred to be tectonically active beneath Lake Ontario. Furthermore, within the lake it crosses at least five major faults and fault zones and coexists with other neotectonic structures. Those attributes, combined with the large earthquakes associated with the St. Lawrence fault zone well to the northeast of Lake Ontario, suggest that the seismic risk in the area surrounding and including Lake Ontario is likely much greater than previously believed.     

The unusual 3D interplay of basement fault reactivation and fault-propagation-fold development: A case study of the Laramide-age Stillwell anticline,west Texas (USA)

Subsurface fault geometries have a systematic influence on folds formed above those faults. We use the extraordinarily well-exposed fold geometries of the Laramide-age Stillwell anticline in west Texas (USA) to develop a strain-predictive model of fault-propagation fold formation. The anticline is a 10-km long, NW-trending, NE-vergent, asymmetric fold system with an axis that displays a map-view left-stepping, en echelon pattern. We integrated field observations, geologic and structural data, cross-sections, and 2D kinematic modeling to establish an unusual 3D two-stage model of contractional fold formation, including: 1) reverse reactivation of a pre-existing, NW-striking, SW-dipping, left-stepping, en echelon normal fault system in Paleozoic basement rocks to generate monoclinal flexures in overlying layered Cretaceous carbonate rocks; and 2) the formation of a subsequent flat-ramp fault system that propagated horizontally along a mechanically-weak, clay-rich Cretaceous unit before ramping up at the hinge of the pre-existing monocline system. Strain is focused within the forelimb of the system, in front of the propagating fault tip, and is accommodated by a combination of interlayer slip, flat-ramp faulting, and fracturing proximal to planes of slip. This strain predictive model can be applied to similar, less-well-exposed contractional systems worldwide and provides a new, unusual example of Laramide-age contractional deformation.     

Neotectonic structures in the area offshore of Alaçatı, Doğanbey and Kuşadası (western Turkey): evidence of strike-slip faulting in the Aegean extensional province

About 400 km of new seismic reflection data has been acquired in the study region offshore of Alaçatı, Doğanbey, and Kuşadası, which enables investigation of the active crustal deformation in this region. The deformation onshore in western Turkey is dominated by crustal extension, and clear evidence of this process is also now available from this offshore area. However, in the onshore area adjacent to this study region evidence of active right-lateral strike-slip faulting has also previously been observed. This strike-slip faulting has previously been thought only to accommodate variations in extension between adjacent normal faults. However, in the offshore area there is considerable evidence of zones of deformation, some of which may link to the strike-slip faulting onshore, suggesting that strike-slip faulting may be of greater importance in this region than previously thought.     

正断层三维生长和连接过程研究：以南海北部陆丰凹陷为例

正断层生长和侧向连接是最基本的三维地质构造问题，深入剖析其三维时 空演化过程对理解沉积盆地内正断层系统的形成与演化至关重要。 南海扩张时间和影响范围一直是国内外地学界研究的热点问题之一。南海北部珠江口盆地陆丰凹陷发育大量正断层，并覆盖有高精度二维地震反射剖面，成为研究上述问题的理想地区之一。本研究以陆丰凹陷为研究对象，开展三维构造解析和建模研究，为正断层系统三维时 空演化过程提供一个实例。研究结果表明：陆丰凹陷主控断层F1的生长和连接过程主要分三个阶段：晚白垩世—早古新世，两条断层分别形成并以孤立断层模式分别向两侧生长；早古新世—早渐新世，断层发生侧向连接作用合并为F1断层，连接处发育侧断坡；晚渐新世—中中新世，F1断层继续向两侧生长。基于F1断层定量分析（生长指数和断距），发现F1断层活动强度表现为先增加然后突然降低，其转折时间对应于T60界面，~23 Ma，较好地对应了西北次海盆扩张终止时间，说明南海北部扩张已经影响到陆丰凹陷。结合前人对珠江口盆地构造变形和演化研究，初步认为南海北部扩张波及的范围已跨过陆丰凹陷向大陆方向继续延伸，其北部边界可能对应于华南大陆南缘的滨海断裂带。本研究可为正断层系统三维生长过程研究提供案例，同时为南海扩张过程研究提供基础数据支撑。     

The role of small‐scale fold and fault development in seismogenic zones: example of the western Huércal‐Overa Basin (eastern Betic Cordillera,Spain)

The NW–SE shortening between the African and the Eurasian plates is accommodated in the eastern Betic Cordillera along a broad area that includes large N‐vergent folds and kilometric NE–SW sinistral faults with related seismicity. We have selected the best exposed small‐scale tectonic structures located in the western Huércal‐Overa Basin (Betic Cordillera) to discuss the seismotectonic implications of such structures usually developed in seismogenic zones. Subvertical ESE–WNW pure dextral faults and E–W to ENE–ESW dextral‐reverse faults and folds deform the Quaternary sediments. The La Molata structure is the most impressive example, including dextral ESE–WNW Neogene faults, active southward‐dipping reverse faults and associated ENE–WSW folds. A molar M1 assigned to Mimomys savini allows for precise dating of the folded sediments (0.95–0.83 Ma). Strain rates calculated across this structure give ～0.006 mm a^?1 horizontal shortening from the Middle Pleistocene up until now. The widespread active deformations on small‐scale structures contribute to elastic energy dissipation around the large seismogenic zones of the eastern Betics, decreasing the seismic hazard of major fault zones. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

阿尔金断裂剪切过程中定向生长锆石的发现及其意义—来自于显微构造和锆石内部矿物包裹体的证据

阿尔金断裂带中段出露一套走滑过程中形成的花岗质和角闪质糜棱岩。从糜棱岩中分选出3种类型的锆石:岩浆成因的长柱状锆石、柱状锆石和变质成因的次浑圆状锆石。这3种锆石的显微结构和构造特征以及它们内部的矿物包裹体均有所区别。其中长柱状锆石在岩石中定向排列,晶体长轴方向与拉伸线理方向一致,并且内部的所有矿物包裹体的长轴方向均与锆石的长轴方向平行,即与拉伸线理方向平行;拉曼研究表明包裹体矿物具熔融相特征;阴极发光图像中反映出这种锆石具有相对均一的内部结构。因此,该长柱状锆石是在韧性剪切过程中部分熔融环境下快速定向生长的,不仅代表了走滑剪切过程中的剪切应变方向,而且其生长年龄代表了走滑剪切的时代。     

叠合盆地储层油气包裹体GOI成因与应用探讨——以准噶尔盆地莫索湾地区为例

在准噶尔盆地莫索湾地区选取了5口具有不同油气显示级别的典型探井,通过对48块岩心样品作精细的储层油气包裹体GOI组成分析,尝试探讨了在复杂油气充注情况下,叠合盆地油气包裹体GOI组成的成因。结果表明,含油气流体的充注强度是主因。但由于油气成藏的多期复合、油气水界面的多期变迁,决定了我们在研究过程中不可以直接借鉴文献中提出的1%和5%等指标来判断油气水层,而是应该结合地质背景,首先仔细分析其成因,再深入讨论应用。文中利用GOI对莫索湾地区的油气运移进行了讨论,取得了良好效果,表明其在叠合盆地油气运移研究中具有一定应用前景。     

气候变暖条件下,中(高)亚洲地区不稳定型冻土的巨大挑战和创新解决方案:——来自首届亚洲冻土大会及会后青藏高原考察的总结报告

首届亚洲冻土大会于2006年8月5~16日在兰州、青藏线和拉萨顺利召开.大会讨论主要包括以下5个议题:1)冻土工程;2)山区和高原冻融灾害及冰缘环境;3)冰冻圈的气候与环境条件;4)冻土水文、寒区水资源及土地利用,和;5)冻土监测、制图及模拟.国内论文大多集中于青藏铁路各种科技创新和工程(示范)建设方面.中亚冻土分类、制图和监测研讨会明确了制定统一的中亚地区冻土图的计划和实施方案.会议期间,国内主要新闻媒体对全球15位著名冻土学家进行了联合采访.大约80位中外代表参加了青藏(公)铁路沿线考察,并于8月15日在拉萨举行青藏铁路工程和环境问题讨论会.专家一致认为,青藏铁路所采取的冻土工程措施基本上是恰当、有效的,能够保证青藏铁路路基的长期稳定性.但是,沿线寒区环境保护问题还任重道远,需要尽快进行综合管(治)理,以达到青藏地区社会经济和谐、持续发展的目标.