The Source Mechanism of the Athens Earthquake,September 7, 1999, Estimated from P Seismograms Recorded at Long Range

On 7 September, 1999, an earthquake (5.8 m_b ^USGS)took place about 20 km from the centre of Athens, until then a seismically quiet region ofeastern Greece. Considerable damage ranging from rock falls to the collapse of reinforcedconcrete structures was reported in the city and surrounding area. No surface break which couldbe directly attributed to rupture on the fault plane was mapped. We use the relativeamplitude method and forward modelling of broadband P seismogramsrecorded at long range to produce a two-dimensional model of the source. We conclude that the earthquake tookplace on a south-west dipping normal fault at a depth of 10 km. This implies that the depthof the seismogenic zone in the area is comparable to other more active regions of Greece.The rupture speed (2.1 km/s) and stress drop (0.54 MPa) are low and are typical of earthquakesin a tectonic environment dominated by high rates of extension. The estimated seismicmoment is 6.014 × 10¹⁷ N m. We have investigated reported rupture directivity and thepossibility of a circular rupture is also examined. Extrapolation of the fault plane to the freesurface suggests that the earthquake took place on a structure associated with the Fili fault.     

Seismic Source Parameters for the ML = 5.4 Athens Earthquake (7 September 1999) from a New Telemetric Broad Band Seismological Network in Greece

A regional telemetric network of twelve digital broad-band seismic stations has been in full operation since the beginning of 1999, in Greece, operated by the Institute of Geodynamics of the National Observatory of Athens (GI-NOA). On 7 September1999, a M_L = 5.4 main shock occurred just 18 kilometers to the north of the Greek capital Athens, causing severe damage and loss of life. The broad band network recorded the seismic sequence and the main shock and 18 aftershocks were selected in order to determine their seismic source parameters and scaling relations by the spectral analysis method.The results indicate a main shock seismic momentM₀ = 5.7 × 10²⁴ dyn-cm in general agreementwith that reported by other agencies and two different source models were used to determine the respective fault radii and displacements for comparison and evaluation purposes.In addition, by investigating source parameters for the aftershocks, it was found that the seismic moment correlates very well with the earthquake magnitude (M_L) and corner frequency (F_C) through the following relationships:Log M₀ = 1.80M_L + 15.19 and Log M₀ = - 3.17F_C + 22.09,respectively. These results and scaling relations are in general agreement with those obtained by other studies and in view of the fact that digital seismic instrumentation is now expanding in Greece, these first results from spectral analysis of digital broad band data can be considered useful for future relevant investigations.     

The Mount Parnitha (Athens) Earthquake of September 7, 1999: A Disaster Management Perspective

Natural Hazards - Strong earthquakes in the proximity of densely inhabited urban areas pose one ofthe most complicated disaster management situations faced by societies today. Herethe experience...     

The Athens earthquake (7 September 1999): intensity distribution and controlling factors

The Athens earthquake, M_s=5.9, that occurred on 7th September 1999 with epicenter located at the southern flank of Mount Parnitha (Greece, Attiki) according to instrumental data, is attributed to the reactivation of an ESE–WNW south- dipping fault without surficial expression. The earthquake caused a large number of casualties and extensive damage within an extended area. Damage displayed significant differentiation from place to place, as well as a peculiar geographic distribution. Based on geological, tectonic and morphological characteristics of the affected area and on the elaboration of damage recordings for intensity evaluation, it can be safely suggested that intensity distribution was the result of the combination of a number of parameters both on macro and microscale. On the macroscale, the parameters are the strike of the seismogenic fault, seismic wave directivity effects and to an old NNE–SSW tectonic structure, and they are also responsible for the maximum intensity arrangement in two perpendicular directions ESE–WNW and NNE–SSW. On the microscale, site foundation formations, old tectonic structures buried under recent formations and morphology are the parameters that differentiated intensities within the affected area.     

The Fault that Caused the Athens September 1999 Ms = 5.9 Earthquake: Field Observations

On 7 September 1999 the Athens Metropolitan area (Greece) was hit by a moderate size (Ms = 5.9) earthquake. The severely damaged area is localized in the northwestern suburbs of the city, at the foothills of Mt. Parnitha (38.1°N, 23.6°E), about 18 km from the historic centre of Athens. In this paper, we present our results on the surface expression of the seismogenic structure. Methods applied were: field observations, geological mapping, fault geometry and kinematics, evaluation of macroseismic data, interpretation of LANDSAT images, construction of a DEM and application of shading techniques. Aftershock distribution and fault plane solutions were also considered. Our results suggest that the earthquake source is located within the NW-SE trending valley bearing a few outcrops of Neogene-Quaternary sediments across the south foothills of Mt. Parnitha, never known in the past to have been activated by such strong earthquakes. The earthquake occurred along a 10 km long normal fault, striking N110°–133° and dipping 64°–85°SW, extending from the Fili Fort (4th century BC) in the NNW to the Fili town and then to Ano Liossia, to the SSE. Tensional stress field with ₃ axis almost horizontal striking NNE-NE prevails in the area. The fault strike and the extensional direction (₃) are compatible with the focal mechanism of the main shock.     

Site-Specific Analysis of Strong Motion Data from the September 7, 1999 Athens,Greece Earthquake

The strong ground motion from Athens, Greece 07/09/1999 earthquake has been recorded by eighteen (18) stations, fourteen (14) within the central Athens area and four (4) at the centers of nearby towns. The ground conditions for most of the recording sites were identified, based on previous geotechnical investigations carried out in the wider area of the sites, and consequently correlated to the seismic motion characteristics. Hence, it has been possible to evaluate the accuracy of different seismological methods for site characterization and also estimate soil effects on peak ground acceleration and elastic response spectra. In addition, preliminary estimates are drawn for the seismic motion characteristics at the epicentral area, where no strong motion recordings are available. The detailed soil profiles at the recordingsites are placed in the Appendix.     

The 2014 Northern Thailand Mw 6.1 Earthquake and its Seismogenic Tectonics

On May 5, 2014, an earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 6.1 (the largest earthquake in Thailand so far) occurred in Chiang Rai of the Golden Triangle area in northern Thailand. We had an opportunity to conduct field survey immediately after the earthquake. Serious damage to buildings and casualties of lives were observed, and the estimated Maximum Mercalli Intensity (MMI) of the earthquake is VIII (evaluated according to the MMI scale of the Chinese Standard). No long continuous ground ruptures were produced during the earthquake,??but in the epicenter (commonly within MMI VIII extent), massive small linear ruptures (usually several tens of meters long) developed and displayed intriguing structural features, offsetting many roads several centimeters left laterally on NE trending cracks or offsetting right laterally on NW trending ones. The focal mechanism solution of earthquake shows that this is a pure strike-slip event, and two nodal planes in NW and NE directions had the same motion senses respectively as those of breakage associated with the earthquake. The long axis of the isoseismals and aftershock distributions are in NE direction,which is consistent with the strike of Luang Namtha fault. The 230-km-long Luang Namtha fault which starts from the border of China and Laos, runs through northern Laos, and terminates at Chiang Rai of Thailand is predominated by left-lateral strike-slip and active in late Quaternary, and two earthquakes over Ms 6.0 occurred along the fault in 1925 and 2007 respectively. This Mw 6.1 earthquake occurred at the southwestern end of the fault. All related features such as evident structural rupturing, elongated orientation of MMI and aftershock distribution,as well as the location of the epicenter,suggest that the Luang Namtha fault may be responsible for the 2014 Northern Thailand earthquake.     

青藏高原中部日干配错断裂第四纪活动特征及2020年7月23日西藏尼玛Mw6.4地震发震构造分析

日干配错断裂位于青藏高原中部, 是"V"型共轭走滑构造中班公湖—怒江缝合带以北的一条NEE-SWW走向左行走滑断裂, 在调节青藏高原南北向挤压和东西向伸展过程中起着重要的作用.在2008年1月9日及2020年7月23日, 先后在该断裂南西端和北东支分别发生6级以上强震.因此, 查明该断裂的晚第四纪活动性及其与区域强震活...     

The Seismogenic Structure and Deformation Mechanism of the Lushan (Mw 6.6) Earthquake,Sichuan, China

On April 20 th, 2013, an earthquake of magnitude MW 6.6 occurred at Lushan of Sichuan on the southern segment of the Longmenshan fault zone, with no typical coseismic surface rupture. This work plotted an isoseismal map of the earthquake after repositioning over 400 post–earthquake macro–damage survey points from peak ground acceleration(PGA) data recorded by the Sichuan Digital Strong Earthquake Network. This map indicates that the Lushan earthquake has a damage intensity of IX on the Liedu scale, and that the meizoseismal area displays an oblate ellipsoid shape, with its longitudinal axis in the NE direction. No obvious directivity was detected. Furthermore, the repositioning results of 3323 early aftershocks, seismic reflection profiles and focal mechanism solutions suggests that the major seismogenic structure of the earthquake was the Dayi Fault, which partly defines the eastern Mengshan Mountain. This earthquake resulted from the thrusting of the Dayi Fault, and caused shortening of the southern segment of the Longmenshan in the NW–SE direction. Coseismal rupture was also produced in the deep of the Xinkaidian Fault. Based on the above seismogenic model and the presentation of coseismic surface deformation, it is speculated that there is a risk of more major earthquakes occurring in this region.     

Review of paleoseismological and active fault studies in Taiwan in the light of the Chichi earthquake of September 21, 1999

This paper reviews the research on active and earthquake faults in Taiwan conducted prior and after the 1999 Chichi earthquake. The Chichi earthquake plays as a turning point of the relevant studies, since the 1999 coseismic surface rupture exactly follows preexisting fault scarps, created in turn by previous seismic events along the Chelungpu Fault. This fact indicates that the precise mapping on the other active faults is fundamental to predict the location of surface rupture caused by large future earthquakes. Since 1999, many trenching studies have been carried out along the Chichi earthquake fault. A few of them demonstrates that the penultimate event is as young as probably only 200–430 years old; however, some others show a rather old age of several hundreds years or even older for the last faulting event before 1999. More trenching studies are necessary for such a long fault in order to understand the possible segmentation features and the correlation of the paleoseismic events identified along the entire fault length. In addition, we further discuss the offshore faulting associated with seismic event along the eastern coast of Taiwan, where the multiple Holocene terraces are well known.     

Response changes of some wells in the mainland subsurface fluid monitoring network of China, due to the September 21, 1999, Ms7.6 Chi-Chi Earthquake

About 60 hydrologic changes in response to the Chi-Chi earthquake with Ms7.6 on September 21, 1999, occurred in 52 wells, including groundwater level, temperature, discharge rate, well pressure and radon, etc., in the subsurface fluid monitoring network. These response changes were mainly co-seismic, but some pre- and post-earthquake changes occurred mainly within 5 days before and after the Chi-Chi earthquake. The response changes of different wells clustering in different tectonic areas showed different features. These changes are distributed in five areas named as A, B, C, D and E. The response changes in A area with short hypo-central distance (less than 550 km) were mainly pre-earthquake changes occurring more than 5 days before the event. Those in area B (in Huanan tectonic block) and C (in Huabei tectonic block) were mainly co-seismic changes. The hypo-central distance is about 1100–1280 and 800–1160 km, respectively. These changes were high-frequency water-level oscillations induced by seismic waves and accompanied by prominent and permanent water-level jumps and drops. There are also some post-seismic changes including discharge rate and water radon and well pressure changes in area C. Those in area D in the Yanshan tectonic block were mainly co-seismic and post-seismic changes including water level, water temperature, and water radon concentration, etc., showing prominent and permanent water-level jumps and drops and rising concentrations of water radon. The hypo-central distance is about 1750–2060 km. Those in Area E were mainly co-seismic changes showing prominent and permanent water-level jump. The hypo-central distance is about 1810–2120 km. Three moderate earthquakes occurred in area D and one strong earthquake occurred in area E 4 months after the Chi-Chi earthquake. The different features of the response changes might be caused by the changes of local hydrologic conditions (like permeability) induced by seismic waves. On the other hand, these response changes might indicate the near-critical conditions in the area where the response changes clustered. Such changes might be understood by the crustal buckling hypothesis. It is thought that the response changes might be a kind of precursor that implies elevated earthquake risk in the region.     

The Mw 7.4 Colima, Mexico, Earthquake of 21 January 2003: The Observed Damage Matrix in Colima City and its Comparison with the Damage Probability Matrix

The Mw 7.4 earthquake of 21 January 2003 occurred within the Mexican subduction zone and produced many damages of masonry constructions in the towns of Colima state, México. The macroseismic investigation of damages produced by the earthquake in Colima city was realized for 3,332 constructions within the area of study representing about 20% of the total city area and covered with the different type of constructions. The 7-grade scale of damage was used to describe the damage distribution. The damage matrix, constructed for the area, showed that the damage distribution varied from 63% of constructions with relatively slight damages (grades 1–3) to 29% of constructions that had significative damages (grades 4–5) and 8% of completely destructed or demolished masonry. The damage matrices, constructed for 12 subzones of the area of study, reflected two tendencies in the damage distributions: the predominance of slight damages of the recent constructions situated in the northern and eastern parts of the area and the predominance of significant damages of the older constructions in the southern and western parts of the area. It was observed a significant dependence of damage index upon the age of constructions and the type of masonry. The comparison of the observed damage matrix with the damage probability matrix calculated for Colima masonry in 1999 gives MM intensity VII in Colima.     

汶川-映秀MS8.0地震的介质破裂与深部物质运移的动力机制

2008年5月22日14时28分在龙门山造山带发生了震惊世界的汶川—映秀MS8.0大地震。这次大地震形成了迄今为止在三维空间分布最为复杂、在水平方向(NE)延伸最长的逆冲型破裂带。笔者分析和讨论了大地震发生后在地表引发的破裂现象和震源深处与其周边地域介质在受力作用下的破裂与"破裂链"的逐步形成和辐射效应。基于该大地震"孕育"、发生和发展的深部介质和构造环境与深层动力过程的研究提出:汶川—映秀8.0级地震的发震断层是龙门山断裂系地表以不同角度西倾的3条断裂带向深部汇聚,青藏高原东北缘松潘—甘孜地域下地壳与上地幔盖层物质向东南减薄,在受到四川盆地"刚性"壳、幔介质阻隔下而沿龙门山断裂系抬升,二者在震源深处,即(15±5)km处强烈碰撞而形成的一条NE向的深部汇聚断裂带。汇聚断裂带即为MS8.0地震和一系列余震的发震断裂带,而不是简单地、形式地将地表的某一条或某两条断裂带视为发震断裂带,因为震源是一个体积。大地震发生后的地表破裂、次生灾害等,即浅层过程的调查和分析对恢复生产、重建家园有着重要意义。显然,在地表和深井中若能长期进行破裂效应的观测,以捕捉地震强烈活动地区震源深处介质与结构发生的初始微破裂和其形成"破裂链...     

活断层的定义与分类 ——历史、现状和进展

活断层是在最近地质时期持续活动,并且未来仍将活动的断裂.活断层作为破坏性地震的主要危险源及其可能衍生的多种潜在灾害作用,意味着它的存在对所在区域的城镇发展和重要基础设施建设都存在难以回避的灾害风险问题.而中国是世界上活断层数量多且遭受相关灾害影响特别严重的国家之一,如何科学评价活断层危险性且有效减轻相关的灾害风险必然是我国经济社会发展中长期面临的重大课题.而活断层定义和分类是评价活断层灾害风险的重要依据.在全面系统地梳理分析国内外在这一领域的历史与现状基础上,介绍并总结了代表性国家和地区、相关的规范标准以及活断层编图与空间数据库建设工程等所采用的活断层定义和分类方案.综合分析与对比结果表明,在制定科学合理的活断层定义及分类方案时,必须综合考虑区域的现今构造动力学背景、现有技术手段及地质上的可操作性、应用目的和社会对活断层风险的可接受程度等因素.活断层定义的关键是过去活动时限及潜在发震能力的选择或确定,前者涉及"新构造、第四纪、晚第四纪、全新世和历史上"共5个不同时间尺度,后者包括"M≥5.0的破坏性地震、M≥6.0的强震和M≥6.5的可能产生地表位移或变形的地震"共3类.晚第四纪和全新世等短时间尺度的活断层定义适合应用于构造活动强烈的板块边界带,但第四纪和新构造等长时间尺度的活断层定义在板内变形区和稳定大陆区,或包含了多种不同活动构造域的区域更为可取.而M≥5.0地震适用于作为区域性防震减灾的震级标准,M≥6.5地震一般可作为活断层避让规范或法规中的标准.国内外最常见的活断层分类方案是基于断裂活动强度与频度(主要通过断层滑动速率与地震复发间隔两个定量参数来体现)和活动时代的分类.但在确定不同级别断层的具体定量参数时,需要综合考虑区域内主要活断层活动强度和活动时代的差异性与现有数据的多寡及有效性,从而达到分类方案可有效区分不同级别活动断裂的目的.另外,活断层评价中还经常涉及活断层的活动性与危险性问题,前者反映的是断裂过去的活动状态,主要通过断层的最新活动时间、平均滑动速率和大地震平均复发间隔等定量参数体现,而断层的危险性主要针对的是活断层在人类社会所关心时段内或工程寿命期内,断裂活动可能造成的灾害及其风险程度,需要在判定断裂活动性基础上,进一步明确未来强震可能出现的位置、震级的大小、地表断层的分布以及一旦发生强震可能造成的地质灾害类型及分布等,通过合理区分出断层的危险性为政府管理部门和工程规划建设部门有效减轻、防控或管理活断层灾害风险提供更具实用性的依据.目前,世界上活断层比较发育且灾害影响显著的典型国家和地区都十分重视全国范围内的活断层普查工作,并把综合编制可更新的且公开共享的全国性活断层图及空间数据库作为长期且重要的基础地质工作,以及有效应对活断层灾害风险和服务社会的重要方式.其中美国西部地州和新西兰等制定的活断层避让法规或规范,非常值得活断层数量多且相关灾害问题突出的中国或类似的国家和地区借鉴.     

The Seismogenic Structure of the 2010 Suining Ms 5.0 Earthquake and its Geometry,Kinematics and Dynamics Analysis

In January 2010, the Suining Ms5.0 earthquake occurred in central Sichuan Basin, with the epicenter in Moxi-Longnvsi structural belt and a focal depth of 10 km. Based on structural interpretations of seismic profiles in this area, we recognized a regional detachment fault located at a depth of 9–10 km in the Presinian basement of the Suining area, transferring its slipping from NW to SE orientation. This detachment fault slipped from NW to SE, and underwent several shears and bends, which caused the basement to be rolled in and the overlaying strata fold deformation. It formed a fault-bend fold in the Moxi area with an approximate slip of 4 km. Correspondingly, the formation of the Moxi anticline is related to the detachment fault. With the earthquake’s epicenter on the ramp of the detachment fault, there is a new point of view that the Suining earthquake was caused by re-activation of this basement detachment fault. Since the Late Jurassic period, under the influence of regional tectonic stress, the detachment fault transfered its slip from the Longmen Mountains (LMS) thrust belt to the hinterland of the Sichuan Basin, and finally to the piedmont zone of southwest Huayingshan (HYS), which indicates that HYS might be the final front area of the LMS thrust belt.     

青海门源MS 6.9地震同震破裂的隧道破坏效应与启示

2022年1月8日青海省门源发生MS 6.9地震,导致兰新高铁大梁隧道发生严重变形破坏。综合野外调查资料、InSAR地表变形数据及轨道控制网（CPⅢ）监测结果等,深入研究了青海门源MS 6.9地震同震破裂带对兰新高铁大梁隧道造成的变形破坏特征。结果表明,海原断裂带冷龙岭−托莱山断裂段为此次地震的发震断裂,并形成长约21.5 km的同震地表破裂,变形性质以左旋走滑为主,地表的最大左旋位移约为3.1 m。同震破裂带在穿过大梁隧道部位时,导致隧道工程发生严重损坏,最严重的变形破坏集中出现在主破裂带两侧各60 m范围内。对比隧道变形量观测结果和同震地表破裂变形特征可知,隧道区跨断裂的最大垂直位移约为91.6 cm,最大左旋位错量约为2.88 m,冷龙岭断裂与大梁隧道夹角约为60°,经换算后对应的发震断裂最大左旋位错量约为3.08 m,指示同震地表破裂的最大走滑位错量与穿过隧道的断裂最大位错量基本一致,表明隧道工程在显著的同震变形中难以起到抗断作用。此次研究成果可为类似穿越活动断裂带的铁路工程规划建设及震害防治提供科学参考与借鉴。