沙漠绿洲非均匀分布引起的中尺度通量的数值模拟

为了研究大气环流模式次网格中尺度通量的参数化问题，本文发展了一个Pielke中尺度边界层与陆面过程的耦合模式，陆面过程模式中包括一个简单植被水热传输模式及一个裸土沙漠模式。利用这一耦合模式，对黑河试验区中沙漠和绿洲这种典型的非均匀下垫面进行了模拟，20多个数值试验的模拟结果表明:（1）中尺度通量在特定的情况下具有和湍流通量相当的重要性，因此，大尺度模式中对中尺度通量的参数化是十分必要的。（2）对于中尺度通量的发展存在一个明显的最优尺度和最优块数，即当绿洲尺度为60 km，3块时，中尺度通量最大。而且当块数增加到一定数目时，可以忽略非均匀效应。（3）背景风速的增大可以使中尺度通量减小；粗糙度的试验说明非均匀块之间的热力差异的减小可使中尺度通量非线性地减小。     

EFFECTS OF SPATIAL VARIABILITY ON THE SCALING OF LAND SURFACE PARAMETERIZATIONS

Understanding and modelling physical and dynamical processes over heterogeneous land surfaces have becomea central focus of many recent studies. There is aconsiderable debate, however, over how to representthe effects of spatial heterogeneity in mesoscale andglobal scale models. Here, a computationally efficientanalytical approach is presented to evaluate scalingproperties of land surface representations. It isshown that the effects of spatial variability may not benegligible for commonly encountered land surfaces andassociated parameterizations. Second-order correction termsinvolving variances of the parameters and covariancesof each pair of land surface parameters are developedto account for the effects ofheterogeneity. Using this analytical approach, weshow that the detail of spatial heterogeneity may not beimportant for the infrared radiation and reflectedsolar radiation from the surface, while sensible andlatent heat fluxes are shown to be sensitive toheterogeneity. Assumptions related todifferent parameterizations for the same physicalprocess could potentially lead to different inferencesregarding the influence of spatial heterogeneity. Theproposed approach, however, is capable of identifying therole of different parameterizations in estimating theinfluence of spatial heterogeneity. These analyticalresults are consistent with the results of severalrecent numerical and field experiments that deal withthe effects of small-scale heterogeneity in landsurface characteristics.     

青藏高原西部地表通量的年、日变化特征

利用青藏高原西部地区改则和狮泉河两个自动观测气象站1998年全年每天24个时次的风速、温度和湿度等梯度观测资料,采用湍流相似理论．计算了改则和狮泉河的动量通量、感热通量以及潜热通量。结果表明：改则和狮泉河两地的地表湍流通量都具有明显的季节变化和日变化,且其季节变化的相同点表现在感热通量均在5月份最大,1月份最小：而潜热通量均在8月份最大。不同点表现在改则的潜热通量在12月份最小,狮泉河1～5月平均潜热通量为负,以凝结为主,改则的月平均蒸发及全年的蒸发总量比狮泉河的要大。而其感热通量比后者的都小。日变化幅度随季节变化明显,表现在夏季地表通量的日变化幅度大,冬季要小得多。     

干旱半干旱区非均匀地表区域能量通量的卫星遥感参数化

卫星遥感在估算非均匀地表区域能量通量时有其独到的作用。文中介绍了利用Landsat TM资料估算非均匀地表区域地表能量通量和蒸发(蒸散)量的参数化方案、研究结果和存在的难点问题。并提出了解决问题的可能途径。     

Determination of Area-Averaged Water Vapour Fluxes with Large Aperture and Radio Wave Scintillometers over a Heterogeneous Surface – Flevoland Field Experiment

A large aperture scintillometer (LAS) andradio wave scintillometer (RWS)were installed over a heterogeneous areato test the applicability of the scintillation method.The heterogeneity in the area, whichconsisted of many plots, was mainly caused bydifferences in thermal properties ofthe crops; the variations in theaerodynamic roughness lengthwere small. The water vapour fluxesderived from the combined LAS-RWSsystem, also known as the two-wavelengthmethod, agreed fairly well with the aggregatedwater vapour fluxes derived from in-situeddy covariance measurements. The water vapourfluxes derived from a stand-alone LASare also presented. It was found that a single LASand an estimate of the area averagedavailable energy (using a simple parameterisationscheme) can provide also reasonablearea-averaged water vapour fluxes.     

Subfilter-Scale Fluxes over a Surface Roughness Transition. Part II: A priori Study of Large-Eddy Simulation Models

The ability of subfilter-scale (SFS) models to reproduce the statistical properties of SFS stresses and energy transfers over heterogeneous surface roughness is key to improving the accuracy of large-eddy simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer. In this study, several SFS models are evaluated a priori using experimental data acquired downwind of a rough-to-smooth transition in a wind tunnel. The SFS models studied include the eddy-viscosity, similarity, non-linear and a mixed model consisting of a combination of the eddy-viscosity and non-linear models. The dynamic eddy-viscosity model is also evaluated. The experimental data consist of vertical and horizontal planes of high-spatial-resolution velocity fields measured using particle image velocimetry. These velocity fields are spatially filtered and used to calculate SFS stresses and SFS transfer rates of resolved kinetic energy. Coefficients for each SFS model are calculated by matching the measured and modelled SFS energy transfer rates. For the eddy-viscosity model, the Smagorinsky coefficient is also evaluated using a dynamic procedure. The model coefficients are found to be scale dependent when the filter scales are larger than the vertical measurement height and fall into the production subrange of the turbulence where the flow scales are anisotropic. Near the surface, the Smagorinsky coefficient is also found to decrease with distance downwind from the transition, in response to the increase in mean shear as the flow adjusts to the smooth surface. In a priori tests, the ability of each model to reproduce statistical properties of the SFS stress is assessed. While the eddy-viscosity model has low spatial correlation with the measured stress, it predicts mean stresses with the same accuracy as the other models. However, the deficiency of the eddy-viscosity model is apparent in the underestimation of the standard deviation of the SFS stresses and the inability to predict transfers of kinetic energy from the subfilter scales to the resolved scales. Overall, the mixed model is found to have the best performance.     

Subfilter-scale Fluxes over a Surface Roughness Transition. Part I: Measured Fluxes and Energy Transfer Rates

A wind-tunnel experiment was designed and carried out to study the effect of a surface roughness transition on subfilter-scale (SFS) physics in a turbulent boundary layer. Specifically, subfilter-scale stresses are evaluated that require parameterizations and are key to improving the accuracy of large-eddy simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer. The surface transition considered in this study consists of a sharp change from a rough, wire-mesh covered surface to a smooth surface. The resulting magnitude jump in aerodynamic roughnesses, M = ln(z ₀₁/z ₀₂), where z ₀₁ and z ₀₂ are the upwind and downwind aerodynamic surface roughnesses respectively, is similar to that of past experimental studies in the atmospheric boundary layer. The two-dimensional velocity fields used in this study are measured using particle image velocimetry and are acquired at several positions downwind of the roughness transition as well as over a homogeneous smooth surface. Results show that the SFS stress, resolved strain rate and SFS transfer rate of resolved kinetic energy are dependent on the position within the boundary layer relative to the surface roughness transition. A mismatch is found in the downwind trend of the SFS stress and resolved strain rate with distance from the transition. This difference of behaviour may not be captured by some eddy-viscosity type models that parameterize the SFS stress tensor as proportional to the resolved strain rate tensor. These results can be used as a benchmark to test the ability of existing and new SFS models to capture the spatial variability SFS physics associated with surface roughness heterogeneities.     

Influences of Climate Change and Its Interannual Variability on Surface Energy Fluxes from 1948 to 2000

Understanding changes in land surface processes over the past several decades requires knowledge of trends and interannual variability in surface energy fluxes in response to climate change. In our study, the Community Land Model version 3.5 (CLM3.5), driven by the latest updated hybrid reanalysis-observational surface climate data from Princeton University, is used to obtain global distributions of surface energy fluxes during 1948 to 2000. Based on the climate data and simulation results, long-term trends and interannual variability (IAV) of both climatic variables and surface energy fluxes for this span of 50+ years are derived and analyzed. Regions with strong long-term trends and large IAV for both climatic variables and surface energy fluxes are identified. These analyses reveal seasonal variations in the spatial patterns of climate and surface fluxes; however, spatial patterns in trends and IAV for surface energy fluxes over the past ～50 years do not fully correspond to those for climatic variables, indicating complex responses of land surfaces to changes in the climatic forcings.     

A Hybrid Wind-Farm Parametrization for Mesoscale and Climate Models

We investigate the area-averaged sensible heat flux (\(Q_{H}\)) obtained with a scintillometer along a 3.1-km path length over the city centre of ?ód?, Central Poland. The annual cycle of \(Q_{H}\) peaks in June but is lower by the middle of summer. In winter, due to a large amount of anthropogenic heat input, \(Q_{H}\) remains positive all day long, with positive night-time fluxes also found during months with frequent cold advection, e.g., June 2010. In the diurnal cycle of this flux, several features specific to urban areas are seen: the peak shifts 1–2 h after noon, the heat flux turns from positive to negative 1–2 h after sunset. In ?ód? \(Q_{H}\) was observed during inflow from the north and north-west, i.e. from the city centre. As this area is mostly covered with impervious materials, most of the heat exchanged between the ground and the overlying air is in the form of sensible heat flux. Under the conditions of inflow from the east and south-east, the maximum heat flux is approximately \(100\,\hbox {W}\,\hbox {m}^{-2}\) lower than during the inflow from the city centre, since more vegetation exists to the east and south-east of the scintillometer path. Cold and warm advection are found to be a vital factor in the observed heat-flux variability in the centre of ?ód?.     

黑河实验区非均匀地表能量通量的数值模拟

利用三维非静力RAMS模拟研究了黑河实验区非均匀地表能量通量，模拟结果表明：绿洲地表净辐射通量较沙漠戈壁大；绿洲及沙漠戈壁下垫面上的Bowen比分别为0．4和4．0；夜间绿洲上整晚维持蒸发，并有负感热通量。模拟结果与测站实测结果与卫星反演值的对比研究指出，RAMS对绿洲下垫面潜热通量的模拟和沙漠戈壁下垫面感热通量的模拟与实测值基本一致。卫星遥感反演及数值模拟方法对净辐射的估算与实测较吻合，绿洲地表感热通量的卫星反演值较数值模拟结果更接近于实际，但潜热通量的模拟值则较卫星估算值更接近于实际；沙漠戈壁地表则是感热通量的模拟值较卫星反演值更接近于实际。上述分析为今后结合卫星遥感改进RAMS陆面过程参数化，使使用于模拟研究干旱区非均匀下垫面地气相互作用提供了可靠依据。     

Parameterization of Heat Fluxes at Heterogeneous Surfaces by Integrating Satellite Measurements with Surface Layer and Atmospheric Boundary Layer Observations

The regional heat flux exchange between heterogeneous landscapes and the nearby surface layer (SL) is a key issue in the study of land-atmosphere interactions over arid areas such as the Heihe River basin in northwestern China and in high elevation areas such as the Tibetan Plateau. Based on analysis of the land surface heterogeneity and its effects on the overlying air flow, the use of SL observations, atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) observations, and satellite remote sensing (RS) measurements along with ...     

Estimations of Land Surface Characteristic Parameters and TurbulentHeat Fluxes over the Tibetan Plateau Based on FY-4A/AGRI Data

正Nan GE1, Lei ZHONG*1,2,3, Yaoming MA4,5,6, Yunfei FU1, Mijun ZOU1,Meilin CHENG1, Xian WANG1, and Ziyu HUANG1     

A New Method for the Determination of Area-Averaged Turbulent Surface Fluxes from Low-Level Flights Using Inverse Models

The low-level flight method (LLF) has been combined with linear inverse models (IM) resulting in an LLF+IM method for the determination of area-averaged turbulent surface fluxes. With this combination, the vertical divergences of the turbulent latent and sensible heat fluxes were calculated from horizontal flights. The statistical errors of the derived turbulent surface fluxes were significantly reduced. The LLF+IM method was tested both in numerical and field experiments. Large-eddy simulations (LES) were performed to compare ‘true’ flux profiles with ‘measurements’ of simulated flights in an idealised convective boundary layer. Small differences between the ‘true’ and the ‘measured’ fluxes were found, but the vertical flux divergences were correctly calculated by the LLF+IM method. The LLF+IM method was then applied to data collected during two flights with the Helipod, a turbulence probe carried by a helicopter, and with the research aircraft Do 128 in the LITFASS-98 field campaign. The derived surface fluxes were compared with results from eddy-covariance surface stations and with large-aperture scintillometer data. The comparison showed that the LLF+IM method worked well for the sensible heat flux at 77 and 200 m flight levels, and also for the latent heat flux at the lowest level. The model quality control indicated failures for the latent heat flux at the 200 m level (and higher), which were probably due to large moisture fluctuations that could not be modelled using linear assumptions. Finally the LLF+IM method was applied to more than twenty low-level flights from the LITFASS-2003 experiment. Comparison with aggregated surface flux data revealed good agreement for the sensible heat flux but larger discrepancies and a higher statistical uncertainty for the latent heat flux     

青藏高原西部地表热通量输送的低频特征

以1997年9月-1998年10月青藏高原西部改则地区自动气象站(AWS)近地层连续观测的梯度资料为基础,计算了高原西部地面感热通量、蒸发潜热通量及地面热源强度,应用Marr小波变换重点分析了地表热通量输送以及与此相关的降水量、土壤湿度和土壤热通量的周期振荡特征.结果表明:地面感热具有明显的30～60天低频振荡,并且在夏季存在准8天的中期振荡;蒸发潜热和降水量以准双周振荡为主.土壤热通量以30～50天低频振荡为主,夏季还存在准8天的中期振荡;土壤湿度在冬季呈现明显的30～50天低频振荡,夏季则为20～30天的低频振荡.     

Mosaic方法在非均匀下垫面上的适用性研究

在非均匀下垫面情况下, Mosaic方法是目前国际上广泛运用于模式中计算地表通量的方法.大量的研究表明, 下垫面的非均匀分布会引发局地环流, 非均匀分布的空间尺度较大时, 所引起的环流甚至可以达到海陆风的强度.这种环流的存在直接影响到次网格地表通量的计算.次网格地表非均匀分布, 尤其是大尺度模式中的次网格非均匀分布, 必将影响地表通量的计算.本文针对次网格地表非均匀问题, 设计了高分辨率的Mosaic试验和非均匀试验, 开展了不同背景风情况下的一系列数值试验, 以探讨这种影响的程度.结果表明, 在土壤湿度空间分布不均匀的情况下, 运用Mosaic方法计算得到的地表潜热通量偏小, 背景风较小的时候偏差较大, 背景风增强时偏差减小.     

Effects of Crop Growth and Development on Land Surface Fluxes

In this study, the Crop Estimation through Resource and Environment Synthesis model (CERES3.0) was coupled into the Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS), which is called BATS CERES, to represent interactions between the land surface and crop growth processes. The effects of crop growth and development on land surface processes were then studied based on numerical simulations using the land surface models. Six sensitivity experiments by BATS show that the land surface fluxes underwent substantial changes when the leaf area index was changed from 0 to 6 m2 m-2. Numerical experiments for Yucheng and Taoyuan stations reveal that the coupled model could capture not only the responses of crop growth and development to environmental conditions, but also the feedbacks to land surface processes. For quantitative evaluation of the effects of crop growth and development on surface fluxes in China, two numerical experiments were conducted over continental China: one by BATS CERES and one by the original BATS. Comparison of the two runs shows decreases of leaf area index and fractional vegetation cover when incorporating dynamic crops in land surface simulation, which lead to less canopy interception, vegetation transpiration, total evapotranspiration, top soil moisture, and more soil evaporation, surface runoff, and root zone soil moisture. These changes are accompanied by decreasing latent heat flux and increasing sensible heat flux in the cropland region. In addition, the comparison between the simulations and observations proved that incorporating the crop growth and development process into the land surface model could reduce the systematic biases of the simulated leaf area index and top soil moisture, hence improve the simulation of land surface fluxes.     

海表动量和热量通量的数值模拟

本文分析了用IAP两层大气环流模式模拟的海表动量和热量通量,并将其同Han等和Esbensen等的气候资料比较.模拟的热量通量与观测估计值有类似的水平分布和季节变化,但在中低纬地区有偏多的热量由海洋向大气输送,尤其1月北半球中纬大气需要从海洋获得过分多的热量;模拟的海表动量通量和气候估计值也类似,但模拟的北半球冬季中高纬西风动量通量中心位置偏东,赤道中西太平洋和大西洋的东风动量通量偏弱,南半球环绕南极的西风带模拟得过分弱(尤其在7月份).本文还检验了基本变量的日变化和日际变化对计算海表动量和湍流扩散热量通量的影响,结果表明用月平均,日平均和每小时的基本量计算的动量和湍流扩散热量通量依次增大,尤其在中高纬地区更明显.     

An Urban Surface Exchange Parameterisation for Mesoscale Models

A scheme to represent the impact of urban buildings on airflow in mesoscale atmospheric models is presented. In the scheme, the buildings are not explicitly resolved, but their effects on the grid-averaged variables are parameterised. An urban quarter is characterised by a horizontal building size, a street canyon width and a building density as a function of height. The module computes the impact of the horizontal (roof and canyon floor) and vertical (walls) surfaces on the wind speed, temperature and turbulent kinetic energy. The computation of the shortwave and longwave radiation, needed to compute the temperature of the urban surfaces, takes into account the shadowing and radiation trapping effects induced by the urban canyons. The computation of the turbulent length scales in the TKE equation is also modified to take into account the presence of the buildings.The parameterisation is introduced into a mesoscale model and tested in a bidimensional case of a city over flat terrain. The new parameterisation is shown to be able to reproduce the most important features observed in urban areas better than the traditional approach which is based only on the modification of the roughness length, thereby retaining the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory. The new surface exchange parameterisation is furthermore shown to have a strong impact on the dispersion characteristics of air pollutants in urban areas.     

Mapping of Land-Atmosphere Heat Fluxes and Surface Parameters with Remote Sensing Data

A variational data assimilation scheme is used to infer two key parameters ofthe surface energy balance that control the partitioning of available energy intolatent, sensible, and ground heat fluxes (LE, H, and G). Remotely sensedland surface temperature (LST) is the principal data source. Maps ofdiurnal energy balance components are presented for a basin with varied landcover (Arno Basin, Italy) for a 18-day period in July 1996.Given available energy, the major unknown (dimensionless) parameters requiredfor partitioning among fluxes are: (1) Landscape effects on near-surfaceturbulence as captured by the bulk heat transfer coefficient C_BN underneutral conditions and (2) surface control of the relative magnitudes of LEand H as represented by the evaporative fraction E_F. The data assimilationscheme merges 1.1-km resolution remotely sensed LST images (based onoptical, thermal and microwave measurements from two different satelliteplatforms) into a parsimonious model of heat diffusion. Both the measurementsand the model predictions are considered uncertain. Posterior error statisticsthat represent uncertainty of the estimated parameters are also derived.Maps of C_BN show spatial patterns consistent with the dominant land useand basin physiography. Daily maps of E_F exhibit spatial variationscorresponding to land cover and land use – the day-to-day variations inE_F show fluctuations consistent with rain events and drydowns experiencedduring the period. Based on these parameters and available environmentalvariables, maps of diurnal LE and H may be produced (in this paper daytimeLE maps are reported).The application demonstrates that remotely sensed land surface temperaturesequences contain significant amount of information of the partitioning ofavailable energy among the fluxes. The variational data assimilation frameworkis shown to be an efficient and parsimonious approach without reliance onempirical relationships such as those based on vegetation indices.     

Modelling Regional Scale Surface Energy Exchanges And Cbl Growth In A Heterogeneous, Urban-Rural Landscape

Over the last decade, simple models of theconvective boundary layer (CBL) have beensuggested as an approach to inferring regionallyaveraged land-air exchanges of heat, water and tracegases, because the properties of the CBL respond toan average of the underlying small-scaleheterogeneity. This paper explores the use of anintegral CBL method to infer regionally averagedfluxes in a landscape that has at least three majorsources of heterogeneity – irrigated andnon-irrigated rural land use and a large urban area(Sacramento region, California).The first part of the paper assesses the validity ofthe simple slab model of the CBL – this isintegrated forwards in time using local-scalemeasured heat and water vapour fluxes, to predictmixed-layer depth, temperature and humidity. Of thefour different CBL growth schemes used, the Tennekesand Driedonks model is found to give the bestperformance. Evaluation of the model performancewith different weightings of heat and water vapourfluxes based on the land use characteristics in theregion suggest that the source area for theboundary-layer sonde measurements is larger thanphysically-based estimates would suggest.Finally, measured time series of potentialtemperature are used to infer regionally averagedsensible heat fluxes using an integral CBL (ICBL)method. These ICBL fluxes are compared with thosemeasured at the local scale over the three land usetypes that comprise the region of interest. They arefound to be closest to the heat fluxes calculated byappropriately weighting the measured heat fluxes inthe source area calculated for the ICBL. We concludethat the integral CBL budget method providesadequate estimates of regionally-averaged surfaceheat fluxes in a landscape that is characterised bysurface types with distinctly different surfaceenergy budgets.