两种对流参数化方案对辐射能量收支的影响研究

利用中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室的格点大气环流模式(GAMIL)1.0版设计了两组数值模拟实验来研究两种不同的对流参数化方案对辐射能量收支的影响.这两种对流参数化方案分别是:Zhang and McFarlance/Hack方案(简称ZM)和Tiedtke/Nordeng方案(简称 TN).对应的数值模拟实验分别取名为EX-ZM和EX-TN.通过对实验结果的分析表明:在对流过程中,EX-ZM允许深对流和浅对流同时发生,因此两种对流同时在模式低层消耗了更多的水汽,释放了更多的潜热,引起了更大的增温;EX_TN每次只允许一种对流发生,也就避免了不同类型的对流在同一层同时消耗水汽的现象.因此对流过后,EX-ZM的环境空气相对湿度较小,而EX-TN周围空气的相对湿度较大,有利于低云云量的生成和大尺度的凝结,因此EX-TN模拟的低云云量偏多,低层的云水含量偏高,模式低层的云光学厚度偏大,这就使得EX_TN中更多的太阳短波辐射通量被云反射掉,严重低估了模式对短波波段的辐射通量的模拟.此外,不同的对流参数化方案通过改变云的长波发射率和降水,进而影响了模式对长波波段的辐射通量、感热和潜热通量的模拟.     

Direct Radiative Forcing of Anthropogenic Aerosols over Oceans from Satellite Observations

Anthropogenic aerosols play an important role in the atmospheric energy balance. Anthropogenic aerosol optical depth (AOD) and its accompanying shortwave radiative forcing (RF) are usually simulated by nu- merical models. Recently, with the development of space-borne instruments and sophisticated retrieval algorithms, it has become possible to estimate aerosol radiative forcing based on satellite observations. In this study, we have estimated shortwave direct radiative forcing due to anthropogenic aerosols over oceans in all-sky conditions by combining clouds and the Single Scanner Footprint data of the Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES/SSF) experiment, which provide measurements of upward shortwave fluxes at the top of atmosphere, with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aerosol and cloud products. We found that globally averaged aerosol radiative forcing over oceans in the clear-sky conditions and all-sky conditions were -1.03±0.48 W m-2 and -0.34 ±0.16 W m-2, respectively. Direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic aerosols shows large regional and seasonal variations. In some regions and in particular seasons, the magnitude of direct forcing by anthropogenic aerosols can be comparable to the forcing of greenhouse gases. However, it shows that aerosols caused the cooling effect, rather than warming effect from global scale, which is different from greenhouse gases.     

基于美国AMF寿县观测的云特性研究

美国能源部大气辐射观测计划移动观测ARMAMF（atmospheric radiation measurement mobile facility）2008年首次在我国寿县开展综合观测,为研究云特性提供了很好的资料平台。本文在此次云雷达等观测资料基础上,研究了寿县秋末冬初云高、云厚、云量及其辐射特性,结果发现,寿县有76．3％的观测日有云出现,54．0％的观测时间有云覆盖,中云（以下简称M云）和高云（以下简称H云）出现频率占全部云系的76．7％,天气系统对寿县云系形成有较大影响;云底高度大于3km的降水性云（以下简称P云）出现频率占全部P云的67．7％,是云底高度小于3kmP云的5．3倍,发生在下午的降水占全部P云的47．8％,气溶胶可能对P云的这种分布有较大影响;云和气溶胶减少地面短波辐射的日均值达一99．1W／m。,其中气溶胶减少约占25．1％。不同高度和厚度云对地面辐射通量的影响有较大差异,P云产生最大的冷却效应（一201．9W／m。）,厚度小于2km的H云对地面辐射通量的减少量最少（一32．9w／m。）。另外,用地面单点云辐射观测与中分辨率成像光谱仪MODIS（moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer）资料估计结果对比发现,两种资料有较大差异,差异可达-1．9～-36．9W／m。     

Assessment of Dust Aerosol Optical Depth and Shortwave Radiative Forcing over the Northwest Pacific Ocean in Spring Based on Satellite Observations

Dust aerosol optical depth （AOD） and its accompanying shortwave radiative forcing （RF） are usually simulated by numerical models. Here, by using 9 months of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer （MODIS） aerosol product data in combination with Clouds and the Earth＇s Radiant Energy System Single Scanner Footprint （CERES/SSF） data, dust AOD and its shortwave RF were estimated over the cloud-free northwest （NW） Pacific Ocean in the springs of 2004, 2005, and 2006. The results showed that in this region, the mean dust AOD and its shortwave RF were 0.10 and -5.51 W m^-2, respectively. In order to validate the dust AOD derived by MODIS, results from the Goddard Global Ozone Chemistry Aerosol Radiation and Transport （GOCART） model were also used here. The correlation coefficient between the monthly averaged dust AOD derived by MODIS measurements and the model simulation results was approximately 0.53. Since the estimates of the dust AOD and its shortwave RF obtained in this study are based mainly on satellite data, they offer a good reference for numerical models.     

Water Vapor and Cloud Radiative Forcings over the Pacific Ocean Simulated by the LASG/IAP AGCM: Sensitivity to Convection Schemes

Characteristics of the total clear-sky greenhouse effect (GA) and cloud radiative forcings (CRFs), along with the radiative-related water vapor and cloud properties simulated by the Spectral Atmospheric Model developed by LASGIAP (SAMIL) are evaluated. Impacts of the convection scheme on the simulation of CRFs are discussed by using two AMIP (Atmospheric Model Inter-comparison Project) type simulations employing different convection schemes: the new Zhang-McFarlane (NZH) and Tiedtke (TDK) convection schemes. It shows that both the climatological GA and its response to El Nio warming are simulated well, both in terms of spatial pattern and magnitude. The impact of the convection scheme on GA is not significant. The climatological longwave CRF (LWCRF) and its response to El Nio warming are simulated well, but with a prominently weaker magnitude. The simulation of the climatology (response) of LWCRF in the NZH (TDK) run is slightly more realistic than in the TDK (NZH) simulation, indicating significant impacts of the convection scheme. The shortwave CRF (SWCRF) shows large biases in both spatial pattern and magnitude, and the results from the TDK run are better than those from the NZH run. A spuriously excessive negative climatological SWCRF over the southeastern Pacific and an insufficient response of SWCRF to El Nio warming over the tropical Pacific are seen in the NZH run. These two biases are alleviated in the TDK run, since it produces vigorous convection, which is related to the low threshold for convection to take place. Also, impacts of the convection scheme on the cloud profile are discussed.     

一维辐射-对流模式对云辐射强迫的数值模拟研究

利用一维辐射－对流气候模式, 详细研究了云量、云光学厚度以及云高等要素的变化对大气顶和地面太阳短波辐射和红外长波辐射通量以及云的辐射强迫的影响, 给出了计算这些物理量的经验拟合公式。结果表明, 云具有极为重要的辐射－气候效应。云量、云光学厚度以及云高即使只有百分之几的变化, 所带来的辐射强迫也可以与大气二氧化碳浓度加倍所产生的辐射强迫（3.75 W/m2）相比拟。例如, 当分别给它们+3%的扰动时, 即取云量变化0.015, 云光学厚度变化0.27, 以及云高变化0.15 km时（在实际的地球大气中, 这种尺度的变化是完全可能发生的）, 那么,可以得到地气系统的太阳短波辐射强迫-3.10 W/m2以及红外长波辐射强迫-1.77 W/m2, 二者之和为-4.78 W/m2, 已经完全可以抵消大气二氧化碳浓度加倍所产生的辐射强迫。但是, 当云量、云光学厚度以及云高向相反方向产生类似扰动时, 所产生的辐射强迫可能极大地放大二氧化碳浓度增加所产生的增强温室效应。因此, 研究结果揭示出, 不管是为了解释过去的气候变化, 还是预测未来的气候变化, 亟待加强在一个变化了的气候环境（例如地面温度升高）下, 云将发生何种变化的研究。     

Shortwave cloud radiative forcing on major stratus cloud regions in AMIP-type simulations of CMIP3 and CMIP5 models

Cloud and its radiative effects are major sources of uncertainty that lead to simulation discrepancies in climate models. In this study, shortwave cloud radiative forcing (SWCF) over major stratus regions is evaluated for Atmospheric Models Intercomparison Project (AMIP)-type simulations of models involved in the third and fifth phases of the Coupled Models Intercomparison Project (CMIP3 and CMIP5). Over stratus regions, large deviations in both climatological mean and seasonal cycle of SWCF are found among the models. An ambient field sorted by dynamic (vertical motion) and thermodynamic (inversion strength or stability) regimes is constructed and used to measure the response of SWCF to large-scale controls. In marine boundary layer regions, despite both CMIP3 and CMIP5 models being able to capture well the center and range of occurrence frequency for the ambient field, most of the models fail to simulate the dependence of SWCF on boundary layer inversion and the insensitivity of SWCF to vertical motion. For eastern China, there are large differences even in the simulated ambient fields. Moreover, almost no model can reproduce intense SWCF in rising motion and high stability regimes. It is also found that models with a finer grid resolution have no evident superiority than their lower resolution versions. The uncertainties relating to SWCF in state-of-the-art models may limit their performance in IPCC experiments.     

Evaluating the Impacts of Cloud Microphysical and Overlap Parameters on Simulated Clouds in Global Climate Models

The improvement of the accuracy of simulated cloud-related variables, such as the cloud fraction, in global climate models (GCMs) is still a challenging problem in climate modeling. In this study, the influence of cloud microphysics schemes (one-moment versus two-moment schemes) and cloud overlap methods (observation-based versus a fixed vertical decorrelation length) on the simulated cloud fraction was assessed in the BCC_AGCM2.0_CUACE/Aero. Compared with the fixed decorrelation length method, the observation-based approach produced a significantly improved cloud fraction both globally and for four representative regions. The utilization of a two-moment cloud microphysics scheme, on the other hand, notably improved the simulated cloud fraction compared with the one-moment scheme; specifically, the relative bias in the global mean total cloud fraction decreased by 42.9%–84.8%. Furthermore, the total cloud fraction bias decreased by 6.6% in the boreal winter (DJF) and 1.64% in the boreal summer (JJA). Cloud radiative forcing globally and in the four regions improved by 0.3%?1.2% and 0.2%?2.0%, respectively. Thus, our results showed that the interaction between clouds and climate through microphysical and radiation processes is a key contributor to simulation uncertainty.     

Intercomparison of Surface Radiative Fluxes in the Arctic Ocean

Recent satellite data analysis has provided improved data sets relevant to the surface energy budget in the Arctic Ocean. In this paper, surface radiation properties in the Arctic Ocean obtained from the Surface Radiation Budget（SRB3.0） and the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project（ISCCP-FD） during 1984– 2007 are analyzed and compared. Our analysis suggests that these datasets show encouraging agreement in basin-wide averaged seasonal cycle and spatial distribution of surface albedo; net surface shortwave and all-wave radiative fluxes; and shortwave, longwave, and all-wave cloud radiative forcings. However, a systematic large discrepancy is detected for the net surface longwave radiative flux between the two data sets at a magnitude of ~ 23 W m–2, which is primarily attributed to significant differences in surface temperature, particularly from April to June. Moreover, the largest difference in surface shortwave and all-wave cloud radiative forcings between the two data sets is apparent in early June at a magnitude of 30 W m–2.     

辐射参数化方案对一个海气耦合模式云和辐射模拟的影响

比较Morcrette辐射方案和Fu_Liou辐射方案对NCC/IAP T63海气耦合模式云和辐射模拟的影响, 结果表明:两种方案模拟的大气顶入射辐射存在明显的差异; 晴空大气Fu_Liou方案的短波吸收能力在全球普遍较Morcrette方案低; 在60°S~60°N之间, Fu_Liou方案模拟的行星反照率更接近于ERBE卫星观测; 在对大气顶净辐射的模拟上, 除了冬季的太平洋和大西洋东岸云量明显减少的部分地区外, Fu_Liou方案对大气顶净辐射的模拟总体上较Morcrette方案有了较为明显的改善; Fu_Liou方案模拟的海洋低层云显著减少, 而热带地区高云的模拟明显增加; 由于采用了“二元云量”算法, 尽管云量有所减少, Fu_Liou方案模拟的云短波吸收作用仍有所增强, 一定程度上改进了Morcrette方案云的短波吸收作用偏弱的现象。     

基于RegCM4.6的中国地区云对地表太阳辐射的影响研究

使用RegCM4.6区域气候模式,选取Emanuel和Mix（Grell+Emanuel）两种积云对流参数化方案,以2016年为例,分别对中国地区云短波辐射强迫及其涉及的物理量进行数值模拟,揭示其时空分布特征,并探究两种积云对流参数方案模拟效果的差异及其原因。结果表明：从季节平均来看,全国地表云短波辐射强迫均为负值,云对地表为冷却效应,冬季最小,春夏季较大。塔里木盆地四季均为辐射强迫低值区,夏季冷却效应最弱,辐射强迫绝对值低于40 W·m-2;全天空地表净短波辐射分布也呈显著季节差异,除夏季外均呈由南向北逐渐递减的分布趋势;晴空地表净短波辐射在横断山脉处和塔里木盆地处均比较低,其中春季最为明显;两个方案所得的季节空间分布特征大致相同,但在数值上存在差异。春季时全国大部分地区全天空地表净短波辐射通量差异最大,在55 W·m-2左右,晴空地表净短波辐射通量在青藏高原处差异在60W·m-2左右。     

WRF中不同积云对流参数化方案对青岛降水预报影响的对比分析

1~10 km水平分辨率是中尺度模式是否采用积云对流参数化方案的"灰色带"。基于青岛市气象局9 km分辨率WRF模式,分别选择KF、GD和BMJ三种积云对流参数化方案对青岛5次大范围降雨过程进行预报试验,分析比较不同积云对流参数化方案对青岛地区降水预报效果的影响。结果表明,这三种积云对流参数化方案对不同量级的降雨具有不同的预报性能:BMJ对小雨预报性能最佳;没有考虑积云对流参数化过程的控制试验对中雨的预报效果最好,KF方案次之;GD方案对大雨和暴雨预报效果均较好。对稳定性降水,GD方案对沿海站点降雨量预报效果较好,KF方案则对内陆站点预报性能较好;对对流性降水,BMJ方案无论是在沿海站点还是在内陆站点都有比较好的预报效果。在降雨空间分布上,对稳定性降水过程,各试验方案均模拟出了小于50 mm的降雨区,对大于100 mm强降雨区,GD方案具有较好的预报效果;对对流性降水过程,BMJ方案预报效果整体较好。     

区域气候模式不同积云对流参数化方案对新疆气候模拟的影响研究

使用NCEP-FNL全球分析资料作为WRF模式的初始场和边界场,利用该模式中7种积云对流参数化方案对新疆地区进行2006年10月1日至2008年3月1日的模拟积分试验,重点考察模式在水平分辨率为10 km下不同积云对流参数化方案对新疆地区气象要素模拟的敏感性。结果表明:1）采用7种积云对流参数化方案的模式都能较好地模拟出年、雨季总降水量、平均温度的空间分布及大气的垂直结构。2）对于不同区域来说,采用各种积云对流参数化方案的模式都能模拟出候降水及候平均温度随时间演变,模式候降水与观测的相关系数在0.20~0.85之间,而候平均温度与观测的相关系数在0.98以上。对于整个新疆地区来说,采用各方案模式模拟的低层偏干偏冷,大气层结较稳定导致降水较观测偏少,而其中天山地区模式模拟的低层较观测偏湿偏暖,大气层结偏向不稳定导致降水偏多。3）采用新的Grell和Kain-Fritsch（new Eta）方案模式模拟的效果综合来看较好。因此利用WRF模式开展新疆地区数值模拟研究时应该考虑不同积云对流参数化方案适用范围。     

LASG Global AGCM with a Two-moment Cloud Microphysics Scheme:Energy Balance and Cloud Radiative Forcing Characteristics

Cloud dominates influence factors of atmospheric radiation, while aerosol–cloud interactions are of vital importance in its spatiotemporal distribution. In this study, a two-moment(mass and number) cloud microphysics scheme, which significantly improved the treatment of the coupled processes of aerosols and clouds, was incorporated into version 1.1 of the IAP/LASG global Finite-volume Atmospheric Model(FAMIL1.1). For illustrative purposes, the characteristics of the energy balance and cloud radiative forcing(CRF) in an AMIP-type simulation with prescribed aerosols were compared with those in observational/reanalysis data. Even within the constraints of the prescribed aerosol mass, the model simulated global mean energy balance at the top of the atmosphere(TOA) and at the Earth's surface, as well as their seasonal variation, are in good agreement with the observational data. The maximum deviation terms lie in the surface downwelling longwave radiation and surface latent heat flux, which are 3.5 W m-2(1%) and 3 W m-2(3.5%), individually. The spatial correlations of the annual TOA net radiation flux and the net CRF between simulation and observation were around 0.97 and 0.90, respectively. A major weakness is that FAMIL1.1 predicts more liquid water content and less ice water content over most oceans. Detailed comparisons are presented for a number of regions, with a focus on the Asian monsoon region(AMR). The results indicate that FAMIL1.1 well reproduces the summer–winter contrast for both the geographical distribution of the longwave CRF and shortwave CRF over the AMR. Finally, the model bias and possible solutions, as well as further works to develop FAMIL1.1 are discussed.     

The Significant Role of Radiosonde-measured Cloud-base Height in the Estimation of Cloud Radiative Forcing

The satellite-based quantification of cloud radiative forcing remains poorly understood, due largely to the limitation or uncertainties in characterizing cloud-base height (CBH). Here, we use the CBH data from radiosonde measurements over China in combination with the collocated cloud-top height (CTH) and cloud properties from MODIS/Aqua to quantify the impact of CBH on shortwave cloud radiative forcing (SWCRF). The climatological mean SWCRF at the surface (SWCRF_SUR), at the top of the atmosphere (SWCRF_TOA), and in the atmosphere (SWCRF_ATM) are estimated to be ?97.14, ?84.35, and 12.79 W m^?2, respectively for the summers spanning 2010 to 2018 over China. To illustrate the role of the cloud base, we assume four scenarios according to vertical profile patterns of cloud optical depth (COD). Using the CTH and cloud properties from MODIS alone results in large uncertainties for the estimation of SWCRF_ATM, compared with those under scenarios that consider the CBH. Furthermore, the biases of the CERES estimation of SWCRF_ATM tend to increase in the presence of thick clouds with low CBH. Additionally, the discrepancy of SWCRF_ATM relative to that calculated without consideration of CBH varies according to the vertical profile of COD. When a uniform COD vertical profile is assumed, the largest SWCRF discrepancies occur during the early morning or late afternoon. By comparison, the two-point COD vertical distribution assumption has the largest uncertainties occurring at noon when the solar irradiation peaks. These findings justify the urgent need to consider the cloud vertical structures when calculating the SWCRF which is otherwise neglected.     

黑碳气溶胶直接辐射强迫及其对中国夏季降水影响的模拟研究

利用NCAR的全球大气模式CAM3分析了黑碳气溶胶在大气顶和地表的直接辐射强迫分布及其季节变化,重点讨论了云对黑碳气溶胶直接辐射强迫的影响,以及黑碳气溶胶对中国夏季降水的影响。结果表明：黑碳气溶胶在大气顶和地表的直接辐射强迫分布范围和强度都具有明显的季节变化。有云条件下,黑碳气溶胶在大气顶产生正的直接辐射强迫,全球年平均强迫值为＋0.33 W·m－2;在地表产生负的直接辐射强迫,全球年平均强迫值为－0.56 W·m－2。晴空条件下,黑碳气溶胶在大气顶和地表的全球年平均辐射强迫值分别为＋0.21 和－0.71 W·m－2。云的存在对黑碳气溶胶的辐射强迫产生了很大的影响,使大气顶的正辐射强迫增加,地表的负辐射强迫减小。黑碳气溶胶导致夏季中国北方30°N～45°N之间区域降水明显增加;而中国长江以南地区除了海南和广西的部分城市外,降水明显减少。模拟结果表明,中国夏季近50年来经常发生的南涝北旱并非由黑碳气溶胶引起。     

GAMIL1.0大气模式模拟的西北太平洋夏季风：阵风参数化方案的影响

本文分析了中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室( LASG/IAP)发展的大气环流格点模式(GAMIL1.0)对1980～1999年西北太平洋夏季风的模拟,讨论了阵风参数化方案对模拟效果的影响.结果表明:GAMIL1.0能合理再现西北太平洋夏季风气候态和年际变率的主要特征,不足之处在于其...     

Optical,Radiative and Chemical Characteristics of Aerosol in Changsha City,Central China

Industrial pollution has a significant effect on aerosol properties in Changsha City, a typical city of central China.Therefore, year-round measurements of aerosol optical, radiative and chemical properties from 2012 to 2014 at an urban site in Changsha were analyzed. During the observation period, the energy structure was continuously optimized, which was characterized by the reduction of coal combustion. The aerosol properties have obvious seasonal variations. The seasonal average aerosol opti...     

LASG/IAP和BCC大气环流模式模拟的云辐射强迫之比较

通过与ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project)逐月辐射资料的比较,本文从气候态和对ENSO响应的角度,评估了国内的三个大气环流模式BCC AGCM、IAP GAMIL和IAP SAMIL对云辐射强迫的模拟能力,讨论了影响模拟结果不确定性的因素.分...     

沙尘气溶胶辐射特性及其观测方法初步评述

沙尘气溶胶在全球及区域尺度气候和环境变化中起着十分重要的作用,大气中的沙尘可通过"阳伞效应"、"冰核效应"和"铁肥料效应"影响全球气候。本文对沙尘气溶胶的气候效应及观测方法进行了介绍。