我国海洋外来生物入侵现状、监管问题及建议

外来生物入侵是指非本地生物(植物、动物和微生物)以自然或人为方式对本地生态系统、人类健康、物种多样性造成危害的现象。外来生物入侵不仅对本地生态系统和物种造成严重破坏,而且会对一个产业、一个地区的经济和社会稳定造成严重影响。文章就部分入侵面积和危害较大的海洋外来生物(包括互花米草、沙筛贝、尼罗罗非鱼、米氏凯伦藻、桃拉病毒)的入侵现状进行综述,并提出海洋外来生物入侵防控存在的主要问题及建议。     

Dose of truth—Monitoring marine non-indigenous species to serve legislative requirements

Non-indigenous species (NIS) are recognized as a global threat to biodiversity and monitoring their presence and impacts is considered a prerequisite for marine environmental management and sustainable development. However, monitoring for NIS seldom takes place except for a few baseline surveys. With the goal of serving the requirements of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the EU Regulation on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species, the paper highlights the importance of early detection of NIS in dispersal hubs for a rapid management response, and of long-term monitoring for tracking the effects of NIS within recipient ecosystems, including coastal systems especially vulnerable to introductions. The conceptual framework also demonstrates the need for port monitoring, which should serve the above mentioned requirements but also provide the required information for implementation of the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments. Large scale monitoring of native, cryptogenic and NIS in natural and man-made habitats will collectively lead to meeting international requirements. Cost-efficient rapid assessments of target species may provide timely information for managers and policy-advisers focusing on particular NIS at particular localities, but this cannot replace long-term monitoring. To support legislative requirements, collected data should be verified and stored in a publicly accessible and routinely updated database/information system. Public involvement should be encouraged as part of monitoring programs where feasible.     

European policies on ship recycling: A stakeholder survey

After almost a decade of intensive regulatory activities focused on ship-recycling around the world, special reference is made to combating the problems of ship dismantling practices on the shores of Southern Asian countries. “The Hong Kong International Convention” was adopted in 2009, to provide a uniform shipbreaking management approach. However, in globalised maritime transport, with the majority of shipowners using Open Registries, the European Union has prepared a common approach considering the implementation of a new legal framework. Regulation 1257/2013 implemented by the EU on ship-recycling should be more rigorous than those in the rest of the world. In this article, stakeholder perceptions of this Regulation are presented, based on an online survey. The results show significantly different perceptions in the ship-recycling industry regarding the developing ship-recycling measures within the EU.     

中国外来海洋生物入侵的现状、危害及其防治对策

全球经济一体化逐步发展,国际间人流和物流日益增加,生物入侵问题已成为人们共同关心的问题。我国对陆地生物的入侵已展开逐步深入的研究,但对海洋生物入侵却关注很少,而且都停留在一般性资料的分析和推测上,实地调查和试验数据更少,对其危害的程度和如何防治也没有基础数据。针对此类问题,就我国外来海洋生物入侵现状作一概述,希望引起社会各界重视,积极开展这方面的研究,预防重大海洋生物入侵灾害的发生,并为我国外来海洋生物入侵的广泛深入的防治研究提供技术支撑。     

The science of European marine reserves: Status,efficacy, and future needs

The ecologically and socio-economically important marine ecosystems of Europe are facing severe threats from a variety of human impacts. To mitigate and potentially reverse some of these impacts, the European Union (EU) has mandated the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) in order to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) in EU waters by 2020. The primary initiative for achieving GES is the implementation of coherent networks of marine protected areas (MPAs). Marine reserves are an important type of MPA in which no extraction is allowed, but their usefulness depends upon a number of ecological, management, and political factors. This paper provides a synthesis of the ecological effects of existing European marine reserves and the factors (social and ecological) underlying their effectiveness. Results show that existing European marine reserves foster significant positive increases in key biological variables (density, biomass, body size, and species richness) compared with areas receiving less protection, a pattern mirrored by marine reserves around the globe. For marine reserves to achieve their ecological and social goals, however, they must be designed, managed, and enforced properly. In addition, identifying whether protected areas are ecologically connected as a network, as well as where new MPAs should be established according to the MSFD, requires information on the connectivity of populations across large areas. The adoption of the MSFD demonstrates willingness to achieve the long-term protection of Europe's marine ecosystems, but whether the political will (local, regional, and continent wide) is strong enough to see its mandates through remains to be seen. Although the MSFD does not explicitly require marine reserves, an important step towards the protection of Europe's marine ecosystems is the establishment of marine reserves within wider-use MPAs as connected networks across large spatial scales.     

Implementing the Marine Strategy Framework Directive: A policy perspective on regulatory,institutional and stakeholder impediments to effective implementation

The implementation of the European Union (EU) Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires EU Member States to draft a program of measures to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES). Central argument of this paper, based on an analysis of the unique, holistic character of the MSFD, is that social and political factors are having a major influence on this MSFD implementation process. More specifically, four potential impediments have been identified that are curtailing the drive towards the effective implementation of the scheme advanced by the Directive. First, scientific uncertainty about aggregated ecological pressure and drivers in relation to the different sectors clouds the definition of national programmes of measures and this in turn may lead to implementation-drift in achieving GES. Second, the scale of the ecosystem is different from the political and socio-economic scales of individual, sectoral decision-making and activities. Third, policy coordination is required on several levels, i.e. at the EU level, within the Regional Sea Conventions, at national level and between these three levels. Finally, the coming together of both stakeholder involvement organized for the MSFD and those of existing, sectoral policy domains makes fair and efficient stakeholder involvement challenging. This paper concludes that more attention should be rendered to establishing appropriate coordination and communication structures, which facilitate greater engagement with the different Directorates-General in the European Commission, the European Council and the Parliament, the Member States, sectoral decision making institutions as well as stakeholder interest groups.     

On the environmental effectiveness of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive

Marine and coastal ecosystems – and thus the benefits they create for humans – are subject to increasing pressures and competing usages. For this reason, the European Union (EU) adopted the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), which is to guide future maritime policy in the EU and aims at achieving or maintaining a good environmental status (GES) of European seas by 2020. To this end, the MSFD requires the development of improvement measures, which have to be assessed inter alia by examining their cost-effectiveness and by carrying out cost-benefit analysis (CBA) before their implementation. This paper investigates the applicability of environmental CBA in the marine context. It identifies and discusses problems that could hamper the environmental effectiveness of the MSFD. For example, the fact that marine ecosystem services are much less tangible than terrestrial ones implies greater challenges for the quantification of benefits for society in a marine context. One finding is that the limitations of environmental valuation methods regarding their ability to capture the whole total economic value of improvement measures are a potential source of problems, as the MSFD allows countries to disregard measures with disproportionately high costs. The trans-boundary nature of the main European seas adds to the complexity of the valuation task, e.g., due to the danger that benefits that occur outside of national territories are neglected. Moreover, the current state of knowledge on the functioning of complex marine ecosystems and the links to socio-economic impacts and human well-being seem insufficient to meet the MSFD requirements.     

Offshore marine conservation policies in the North East Atlantic: Emerging tensions and opportunities

An inherent tension exists between legal approaches to nature conservation and fisheries management in the European Union, as the former remains the remit of Member States while the latter is under the exclusive legislative jurisdiction of the European Community (EC). This tension is of particular importance when addressing the conservation of habitats or species that are under threat from fishing activities. This article examines recent developments in offshore marine conservation in the North-East Atlantic in light of the legislative developments and political frameworks that are currently evolving. By analysing the emergency closure of the Darwin Mounds area of cold-water corals and the UK pair-trawl ban, it becomes evident that the precautionary principle is a key factor in the tension between fisheries management and marine nature conservation, and is not always taken into account.     

The putative impacts of the non‐native seaweed Sargassum muticum on native communities in tidepools of Southern California and investigation into the feasibility of local eradication

The ecological impacts of introduced seaweeds have been relatively understudied. Current research suggests that seaweed invasions often result in alterations of native marine communities and disruptions of normal ecosystem functioning, but the effects on native communities can vary among invasive seaweed species, among habitats and over small and large spatial scales. In this study, the impacts of Sargassum muticum, a non‐native brown alga introduced into southern California, USA, several decades ago, were examined by comparing community structure in rocky inter‐tidal pools with and without the seaweed. Sargassum muticum appeared to have little impact on the native community despite measures revealing changes in the abiotic conditions of pools, with S. muticum presence reducing light penetration and ameliorating pool temperature changes during low tides. In other regions and habitat types, S. muticum presence often, but not consistently, resulted in declines in macrophyte diversity and/or abundance and increases in faunal assemblages. The lack of effects of S. muticum in this study, combined with variable impacts by S. muticum and other invasive seaweeds worldwide, suggests that predicting the effects of introduced seaweeds is problematic and warrants further research. Regardless of the effects on native communities, there is often a desire to eradicate or control the spread of non‐native seaweeds. In this study, localized S. muticum eradication attempts, including manipulations of a native canopy and herbivorous urchins, proved unsuccessful as full recovery occurred in ~9 months. While eradication efforts conducted worldwide have resulted in mixed success, there is a trend that early detection and rapid response can increase success, highlighting a need for systematic monitoring and establishment of regional rapid response plans.     

Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity

Invasive alien marine species threaten biodiversity, marine industries (including fishing and tourism) and human health, and unlike oil spills only get worse with time. While some progress is being made internationally on the 10,000 species estimated to be in transit around the world in the ballast water, effective solutions are a long way off; meanwhile the majority of vectors is being ignored. A systematic approach to invasive alien marine species is required to target the means and location of the most effective management actions. Cooperation among regional trading partners will be essential to effectively manage the threat.     

Alien biodiversity in Mediterranean marine caves

The number of alien species in the Mediterranean Sea is increasing rapidly, but few attempts have been made to evaluate impacts on specific habitat types. The present study investigated alien biodiversity in Mediterranean marine caves, both by contributing new records of Eastern Mediterranean cave aliens, and by reviewing the scattered existing literature; the main goals were to highlight potential impacts and investigate the importance of cave environments for the expansion of alien species. Seven new alien species were found in marine caves of the Aegean and Ionian seas, raising the total number of aliens reported from Mediterranean marine caves to 56 species, classified as molluscs, cnidarians, bryozoans, polychaetes, crustaceans, macroalgae, fishes and tunicates. Most cave aliens (66%) were recorded from the Southeastern Levantine coasts, specifically from Lebanese caves. Shipping and Lessepsian migration have been suggested as the main pathways of alien introduction into caves of the Mediterranean Sea. The comparison of alien cave biodiversity with the updated Mediterranean alien inventory (32 species added to the latest inventory) showed similar patterns and trends for species richness, biogeographical origin and major introduction pathways, corroborating previous findings on the high local representativeness of Mediterranean cave biodiversity. Alien species seem to have invaded mostly the entrance and semi‐dark zones of shallow and/or semi‐submerged caves and tunnels, whereas only a few have reached the dark inner sectors or caves of the anchialine type; thus, the unfavourable cave environment seems to be naturally protected from impacts related to opportunistic invasive species, at least to a certain point. Currently there is no research confirming any direct impacts of alien biota on the native cavernicolous one. However, some issues have emerged, implying potential threats that need to be further explored: (i) the presence of a considerable proportion of aliens in most studied marine caves of the Southeastern Mediterranean basin, (ii) the recently observed population explosion of alien cave‐dwelling fishes in the same area, (iii) several indications that alien diversity in marine caves is much higher than we know today. Quantitative surveys and monitoring schemes are needed in order to evaluate potential effects of alien diversity on cave community structure and the role of marine caves as stepping stones for its expansion in the Mediterranean.     

The Spanish approach to marine spatial planning. Marine Strategy Framework Directive vs. EU Integrated Maritime Policy

The coming into effect of the Directive 2008/56/EC (Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)) will induce European Union member States to create mechanisms for managing maritime space in order to comply with the goals set out in this binding legislation. This leads one to think that marine spatial planning in various countries in the EU will be directed at complying with the Directive's environmental goals, as is the case in Spain, rather than undertaking proactive planning for developing the maritime sectors. To put the case of Spain into perspective, a review is conducted of the initiatives taken, especially in Europe and the European Union, exploring the correlations between the main focuses of the maritime sectors and the planning systems. The analysis of the Spanish initiative demonstrates how the maritime economy model and geopolitical factors explain the planning options for the marine environment. In other respects, with the coming into effect of the MSFD, a dual institutional course for marine spatial planning seems to be opening up in the EU: Integrated Maritime Policy vs. the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.     

Dialectics of nature: The emergence of policy on the management of commercial fisheries in english European Marine Sites

European Marine Sites (EMS), designated under either the Habitats or Birds Directives, protect the biodiversity of the European Union (EU) and contribute to the implementation of the 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity [1]. The introduction of this form of marine protected area (MPA), as a consequence of EU conservation directives, introduced new legal obligations in waters long exploited by inshore fishing communities. Although the Habitats and Birds Directive have been in place since 1992 and 1979 respectively (the 1979 Directive updated in 2009), it has not been until more recently (2014) that ongoing inshore fisheries activities in England, which predate designation of sites, have been systematically assessed and managed, for their impact in protected sites. In practice it was assumed by many MPA practitioners that at the time of designation of EMS, ongoing activities would be compatible with the conservation objectives of these sites. This paper illustrates the introduction of a general and systematic “revised approach” to managing fisheries in all English EMSs, and how this represented a change in government policy which can be traced directly to a legal campaign between 2008 and 2012 by two UK environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (eNGOs). The paper elucidates this iterative marine policy process analysing the dialogue between government bodies and eNGOs and show how the resulting interpretation of conservation law, has sought to resolve the tensions between the precautionary approach as emphasised by the eNGOs and the Government's desire for proportionality of response.     

Distribution of the burden of fisheries regulations in Europe: The north/south divide

The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is a priority area of the European Union's Better Regulation agenda. Understanding the spatial variation in the application of the policy and the reasons behind these differences would provide insights into policy making in different socioeconomic and cultural settings that will assist in better regulation. The CFP aqcuis (the body of European Union law accumulated thus far) was analysed by creating a database composed of pre-defined elements from each obligation. Distinct differences are apparent in the ‘burden’ imposed by regulations in the Northern and Southern waters. However, a combination of a timeline of fish landings and the accumulation of the CFP regulations shows that despite the increase in the number of regulations this has not led to the anticipated reduction in landings. Historical, biological and geopolitical differences between the two major marine regions of the EU are discussed in terms of the impact they have had on the formation of the different fisheries management models in the different regions. Finally, the elements forming these models are discussed in terms of successes and failures in the context of the 2012 CFP reform.     

Lost in translation? Standardising the terminology used in marine invasion biology and updating South African alien species lists

Confusion between terms and ambiguities among definitions have long plagued the field of invasion biology. One result is disruption in flow of information from researchers to policy-makers and managers who rely on science to inform regulatory frameworks and management actions. We reviewed the South African marine biology literature to quantify the current usage of terminology describing marine invasions and found a variety of terms in use, few of which are defined when used. In response, we propose standard terminology that aligns with international practice. We then interpreted the Blackburn unified framework for biological invasions within the marine context and used this as a transparent way to apply the standardised terms to an updated list of marine alien species for the country. This resulted in the recognition of 36 alien and 53 invasive species within South Africa. Most notably, follow-up research is required to confirm the status of at least 11 listed species, the majority of which have been recorded only once, or not in the past 25 years. It is hoped that by standardising terminology, marine science in South Africa will better support authorities charged with managing the threat posed by marine alien species.     

SEAS-ERA: An overarching effort to coordinate marine research policies across Europe

The aim of the SEAS-ERA initiative (2010–2014), developed within the European Union Framework Programme (EU FPVII) (contract 249552), was to coordinate the structure of national and regional marine and maritime research programs to empower and strengthen marine research all across Europe. A major goal was the development and implementation of common research strategies and programs related to European seas basins. To achieve this goal, SEAS-ERA was applied at two different levels, regional and pan European, to identify common priorities and needs in five areas, namely strategic planning (marine research agendas), joint research activities (common programs and joint calls), marine research infrastructures and human capacity building to reduce imbalances among regions. SEAS-ERA was also strongly committed to enhancing public awareness of marine and maritime scientific and policy issues in Europe.     

Priority questions to shape the marine and coastal policy research agenda in the United Kingdom

United Kingdom (UK) and European Union policy is rapidly developing to meet international targets for the sustainable use and protection of the marine environment. To inform this process, research needs to keep pace with these changes and research questions must be focused on providing robust scientific evidence. Thirty four priority research questions within six broad themes were identified by delegates who attended the 1st marine and coastal policy Forum, hosted by the Centre for Marine and Coastal Policy Research at Plymouth University in June 2011. The priority questions formed through this research are timely and reflect the pace and change of marine policy in the UK in response to international, European and national policy drivers. Within the data theme, the majority of questions seek to find improved procedures to manage and use data effectively. Questions related to governance focus on how existing policies should be implemented. The marine conservation questions focus entirely upon implementation and monitoring of existing policy. Questions related to ecosystem services focus on research to support the conceptual links between ecosystem services, ecosystem function, and marine management. Questions relating to marine citizenship are fundamental questions about the nature of societal engagement with the sea. Finally, the marine planning questions focus upon understanding the general approaches to be taken to marine planning rather than its detailed implementation. The questions that have emerged from this process vary in scale, approach and focus. They identify the interdisciplinary science that is currently needed to enable the UK to work towards delivering its European and international commitments to achieve the sustainable use and protection of the marine environment.     

An index to assess maritime importance in the European Atlantic economy

Successive marine policies set by the European Union identify the maritime sectors as crucial drivers for growth and jobs in the EU economy. The design of marine policies and the assessment of the importance of the maritime economy need empirical support that provides the basic data to help the decision-making process. This paper proposes a metric, in the form of a synthetic index, to measure and compare the importance of the maritime sectors in the European Atlantic area. The index scores can be used to assess the position of each Atlantic region so that it is possible to compare its performance to the rest of the area. The results show the relative weight of the maritime sectors in the European Atlantic regions and the high heterogeneity among them. Analyzing the maritime economy with this index can provide guidance for the design of economic policies to identify and revitalize the regions with greater potential for Blue Growth in the Atlantic area. This may help to put into perspective the importance of the maritime economy and can serve to improve the socio-economic dimension of the use of marine waters.     

The European Marine Strategy: Contribution and challenges from a Portuguese perspective

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) is considered to be the environmental pillar of the EU Integrated Maritime Policy, establishing a framework within which member states must take the necessary measures to achieve, or maintain, good environmental status in their marine waters. This study presents Portugal's contributions to the Directive development, describes the Portuguese institutional framework within the MSFD and, finally, highlights the opportunities and threats to the success of the MSFD implementation in Portugal. The latter entails an analysis of the Directive's long term adequacy in its link to (1) marine spatial planning, (2) climate change and (3) the economic/financial crisis. With one of Europe's largest exclusive economic zones. Portugal's interest in the MSFD is paramount. Efforts towards the approval of the final document were assured during the Portuguese presidency of the European Council of Ministers, in 2007, while chairing a thorough discussion between the Council and the European Parliament. In the Portuguese context, the Directive implementation will rely on the Water Institute as the authoritative entity, which will be responsible for coordinating all necessary efforts at the national level. The success of such process depends on a close cooperation among the institutions involved as well as on how approved measures account for long term issues. In addition, the MSFD implementation must be built on lessons learned within the Water Framework Directive, in order to be successful. Although it poses a methodological challenge to Portugal, the MSFD implementation is expected to contribute significantly to the improvement of coastal/marine conservation and management at the national level.     

Differences in spatial and seasonal patterns of macrophyte assemblages between a coastal lagoon and the open sea

Although benthic macrophytes must be considered in monitoring programs to establish the ecological status of transitional and coastal waters in the European Union, the patterns of variability in species composition of macrophyte assemblages in Mediterranean coastal lagoons has scarcely been studied. In this work the spatial (both vertical and horizontal) and seasonal dynamics of macrophyte assemblages in a coastal lagoon (Mar Menor) are compared with those of open coastal assemblages in the SW Mediterranean to analyze any biological variability in lagoon assemblages and the factors that determine such variability. Different assemblages, characterized by well defined groups of species, can be described according to their isolation from the open sea and the type of substratum; at the same time, a vertical zonation pattern, similar to that found in all marine communities but more compressed, exists. This implies that when applying the EU Water Framework Directive or assessing environmental impact, a lagoon should not be considered spatially uniform and unique unit but as a mosaic of assemblages.