Influence of Drying on the Stiffness and Strength of Cement-Stabilized Soils

Nowadays, improving the strength and deformation properties of soft soils by deep soil mixing is a commonly used technique. There is also an increasing interest in the use of this technique for foundation/structural elements and excavation retaining walls applications. The compressive strength and elastic modulus of the soil mix material are key parameters in the design of these structures. However, there is very limited information available on the impact of exposure to air drying (in the case of retaining wall) on the strength and stiffness of cement stabilized soils. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of different curing conditions (immersion in water, cycles of wetting and drying, continuous air drying) on the mechanical properties of soils treated with cement in the laboratory. Free–free resonance tests and unconfined compression tests were performed on specimens of silt and sand treated with blastfurnace slag cement. Strength increases more rapidly than stiffness between 7 and 30 days. The strength of stabilized soils submitted to cyclic wetting and drying before the cement hydration process is complete continues to increase. As long as the periods of drying do not induce microcracks, the stiffness of the treated soil specimens also increases with time. However, the stiffness is lower than for the specimens cured in water indicating a disruptive effect of the imposed wetting–drying cycles on stiffness. Continuous exposure to air drying inhibits strength development due to insufficient water for hydration. Significant stiffness decreases were observed on specimens of stabilized silt and are attributed to microcracking.     

Evolution of anisotropy with saturation and its implications for the elastoplastic responses of clay rocks

Many clay rocks have distinct bedding planes. Experimental studies have shown that their mechanical properties evolve with the degree of saturation (DOS), often with higher stiffness and strength after drying. For transversely isotropic rocks, the effects of saturation can differ between the bed-normal (BN) and bed-parallel (BP) directions, which gives rise to saturation-dependent stiffness and strength anisotropy. Accurate prediction of the mechanical behavior of clay rocks under partially saturated conditions requires numerical models that can capture the evolving elastic and plastic anisotropy with DOS. In this study, we present an anisotropy framework for coupled solid deformation-fluid flow in unsaturated elastoplastic media. We incorporate saturation-dependent strength anisotropy into an anisotropic modified Cam-Clay (MCC) model and consider the evolving anisotropy in both the elastic and plastic responses. The model was calibrated using experimental data from triaxial tests to demonstrate its capability in capturing strength anisotropy at various levels of saturation. Through numerical simulations, we demonstrate the role of evolving stiffness and strength anisotropy in the mechanical behavior of clay rocks. Plane strain simulations of triaxial compression tests were also conducted to demonstrate the impacts of material anisotropy and DOS on the mechanical and fluid flow responses.     

孔隙率、级配参数对粉土双轴压缩性状影响的颗粒流分析

针对颗粒流法中颗粒几何参数等对土体宏观力学性质的影响进行了数值模拟,并将数值模拟结果与室内模型试验验证进行了对比。对二维、三维下土体级配及孔隙率进行了理论分析,并提出二维数值试样颗粒数目及孔隙率转换公式。采用PFC2D软件进行了6组参数验证及24组交叉对比（含4组级配、3组孔隙率及2类接触模型）双轴压缩试验。结果表明：孔隙率对土体力学性质的影响大于级配;随着孔隙率增加,土体强度峰值逐渐降低,对应轴向应变增大,体应变则由剪胀性逐渐向剪缩性过渡。当孔隙率较低时,采用线性及Hertz-Mindlin (H-M)接触模型得到的模拟结果均较接近;而当孔隙率升高时,建议采用H-M接触模型,以更好地反映土体到达强度峰值后产生的后续剪胀效应。     

青藏粉土-玻璃钢接触面力学特性直剪试验研究

青藏直流±400 kV输变电工程中采用表面光滑的玻璃钢覆盖基础表面,以减少切向冻胀力对基础的冻拔作用。过去的研究鲜有涉及土体特别是冻土与玻璃钢基础接触面的力学特性,为指导冻土区基础设计和安全评价,采用应变直剪仪开展了多种含水率和温度条件下青藏粉土-玻璃钢接触面直剪试验研究。结果表明,青藏粉土-玻璃钢接触面屈服时相应剪切位移很小,应变硬化阶段短暂或不显著;冻结状态下接触面应力-位移性状呈脆性破坏型,存在明显峰值;融化状态时接触面的剪应力-位移性状呈塑性破坏型,其应力-位移关系曲线为弱软化型和屈服型,没有明显峰值;融化状态时接触面抗剪强度值随含水率的增加而缓慢减小,冻结状态时其强度随负温绝对值和含水率的增加而增大,且随着土体含水率的增大,温度降低导致接触面抗剪强度增强效果更加显著,土体含水率大于19%后抗剪强度趋于稳定;温度对抗剪强度的影响主要体现于黏聚力的改变,且随着含水率的增加,温度影响增强。接触面内摩擦角随负温绝对值增加而减小,随含水率的增加而减小。     

Effects of Soil Aging on Mechanical and Hydraulic Properties of a Silty Soil

The aging phenomenon, which produces changes in material state over time, is associated with significant modification of mechanical and physical soil properties. This change should be accounted for during geotechnical design. Although soils sometimes improve with aging, the opposite effect is occasionally observed. This paper describes a study performed to investigate the effect of aging on the mechanical behavior and the permeability of a silty soil. Undrained unconsolidated triaxial shear tests and triaxial permeability tests were performed on disturbed and compacted samples. Upon conclusion of these tests, the samples were sealed from air and moisture. The results show an important increase in both the undrained shear strength and the deformation modulus caused by silt rigidification during the aging process. These changes cause an over estimation of laboratory measured shear strength. For instance, the increase in the deformation modulus and undrained cohesion can approach 100 % for an approximate 328 day storage period. Sample permeability was found to decrease with aging. This reduction can be ascribed to several causes including micro-organisms growth, secondary sample consolidation and progressive filling caused by the migration of very fine particles. These phenomena might have negated the expected increase in permeability with aging time reported in the literature.     

Utilization of waste marble to enhance volume change and strength characteristics of sand-stabilized expansive soil

In this paper, marble waste is evaluated as a secondary material to be utilized as potential stabilizer to improve the volume change and strength characteristics of sand-amended expansive soil, proposed as a possible landfill, pavement or sub-base material in a semi-arid climate. An experimental program was conducted on sand-expansive soil enhanced with marble waste, abundantly found as a by-product of construction industry, obtained from two different sources with different gradations, denoted as marble powder (MP) and marble dust (MD). One-dimensional swell, volumetric shrinkage, consolidation, unconfined compressive and flexural strength tests were conducted on expansive soil–sand mixtures with 5, 10 and 20% waste marble inclusions over curing periods of 7, 28 and 90 days. Test results showed that 10% marble powder and 5% marble dust by dry mass were the optimum amounts for mitigating the swell–shrink potential and compression index as well as yielding the highest unconfined compressive and flexural strength values. Moreover, the rate of reduction in swell potential versus the flexural strength over the curing periods studied is highest in 10% MP- and 5% MD-included specimens, the latter being more insensitive to this change. The soil mixtures displayed brittle behavior after marble addition, hence its utilization as a secondary additive to sand-amended expansive soil is recommended for soils exposed to lower flexural loads such as light traffic.     

植物纤维加筋固化土抗压强度和渗透试验研究

为了研究椰丝纤维和双聚高分子材料加固粉砂土的效果和机制,本文采用正交试验方法,通过掺加双聚高分子材料和椰丝纤维,针对影响加筋固化土的力学性能和渗透性的因素（椰丝纤维掺量、椰丝纤维长度和双聚材料掺量）,进行无侧限抗压强度试验和渗透试验等分析研究。研究结果表明:在粉砂土中添加双聚材料固化剂和椰丝纤维,提高了土体的无侧限抗压强度和降低了土体的渗透性。椰丝纤维含量和双聚材料掺量对试样的无侧限抗压强度影响非常显著,椰丝纤维长度对试样无侧限抗压强度的影响显著。椰丝纤维含量和双聚材料掺量对试样渗透系数的影响显著,椰丝纤维长度对渗透系数的影响不显著。当纤维掺量为0.9%,双聚材料掺量为0.375%时,试样的无侧限抗压强度最大。纤维掺量为0.9%,双聚材料掺量为0.325%时,试样的渗透系数最小。     

强结构性天然沉积土的强度变形特性

广泛分布在日本大分县的天然硅藻土是一种令人惊奇的具有正常固结历史的天然沉积结构土,其含水量如豆腐,却硬如石头。由于具有强结构性,其土样不会受到取样及成形过程的扰动影响,能够在室内对其天然状态进行力学性状研究,是一种难得的天然沉积结构性土。采用最大压力达10 MPa的高压三轴仪对天然沉积硅藻土进行试验,以探讨强结构性天然沉积土的力学性状。结果表明,其固结屈服压力达到上覆压力的57倍以上,固结屈服前的压缩曲线是水平的,固结压力达到固结屈服压力时,压缩性突增。强度试验结果显示,处于固结屈服前状态的强度与应力水平无关,而处于固结屈服后状态时其强度包络线与重塑粘土同样为通过原点的直线。     

冲击荷载作用下结构性软黏土力学特性试验研究

冲击荷载作用对土体力学特性影响较大,为了研究此特性,基于天津滨海结构性软黏土,以空心圆柱扭剪仪模拟冲击荷载作用,并在冲击荷载作用前后对土体进行不固结不排水三轴试验,对比研究不同试验条件下结构性软黏土力学特性。试验结果表明:低围压常规三轴剪切试验状态下,土体表现出弱应变软化现象,且土体抗剪强度包线不能用直线表示,而是可由两条直线近似拟合而成;冲击荷载作用时,在一定应力范围内,冲击荷载越大,土体轴向应变、孔隙压力以及主应力差峰值也越大;冲击荷载作用后三轴剪切试验各围压下土体都呈应变硬化型,主应力差峰值均大幅减小,且土体抗剪强度包线均可用直线表示,c、φ值也远小于未受冲击荷载时三轴剪切试验相应数值。最后,总结分析冲击荷载作用对软黏土强度的影响,并拟合得到强度折减与围压、冲击荷载的关系,为实际工程中承受冲击荷载的结构性软黏土强度确定提供参考。     

Investigation of Soil Conditioning Tests with Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling

Due to the diverse and complex structure of soil and the variety of foam-modifier materials that are used, it is difficult to provide a model to predict the laboratory behavior of modified soils. For example, several studies have shown independently that the amount of the foam-modified soil depends on several factors, such as the internal friction angle and normal stiffness. Of late, modeling by numerical methods has become popular in engineering sciences and the modeling of complex material behavior is possible with the help of numerical methods. In this research, the performance and efficiency of the numerical method in the modeling of laboratory tests such as the slump test and the uniaxial compressive strength test were investigated and it was found that numerical modeling performs very well in predicting the results of these tests for foam-modified sand samples. In order to achieve this goal, the slump test and the uniaxial compressive strength test were performed in the laboratory on several modified sand samples in order to obtain the laboratory results for these samples. Then, numerical simulation of these experiments was carried out using PFC^3D software. The results of numerical modeling were compared with the experimental results, and good agreement was observed. Finally, after calibration of the numerical model using the experimental results, the effect of changes in the internal friction angle and the normal stiffness of the modified sand in the amount of the slump was investigated. According to the results of this sensitivity analysis, it was determined that by increasing both effective parameters the amount of the slump of foam-modified sand decreases and that the parameters are the most important factors in controlling the slump value.     

Experimental Investigation of Frictional Behavior Between Cohesive Soils and Solid Materials Using Direct Shear Apparatus

Soil shearing resistance is very important while designing various structures which have direct contact with soil, for example, sheet piles, piles, retaining walls, reinforced earth structures and shallow foundations. Even though designers use empirical values for their design, it is very important to obtain more accurate values for soil–solid materials shearing resistance. In this work, laboratory tests have been carried out to investigate the effect of roughness interface and texture models on friction angle between cohesive soils and steel, as well as abrasive paper material, using direct shear tests. All tests were carried out under consolidated drained shear conditions. The behavior at the soils–solid interface was found to vary according to surface roughness. It also seems that the type of material (steel or paper of abrasive) used does not have a major influence on the shear strength. As far as roughness is concerned, friction behavior is likely to be generally classified into three failure modes, namely full sliding at the interface, shear failure within the soil, and a mixed behavior where interface sliding and shear deformation of the soil specimen proceed simultaneously. However, for the second mode, the shear strength at the interface soil-rough solid materials steel was found to be lower than the shear strength of the soil, for a soil that is classified as high plasticity clay. Furthermore, it was found that the interfacial shear strength is independent of the texture surface for a given roughness.     

Geomechanical Characterization of Zhangmu Soil-Rock Mixture Deposit

Zhangmu deposit is a typical soil-rock mixture (S-RM) deposit made up of very complicated inhomogeneous materials containing soil matrix and rock blocks of various sizes. The slope shows evidences of instability phenomena characterized by shallow landslides and several extensive cracks along slide crown, which seriously affects the life of local residents. In order to characterize the mechanical behavior of the deposit with evaluation of the actual strength parameters and permeability while taking into account the influence of the block proportion, seven test points were established for in situ S-RM and constant-head injection tests on a large scale. The results indicated a larger internal friction angle and lower cohesion for S-RM from in situ tests compared to tests results obtained from laboratory testing. Moreover, it was noted that the strength parameters were correlated with the block proportion by weight (WBP) of S-RM, while both internal friction angle and cohesion were observed to be strongly affected by a critical WBP threshold (70 %), which is in agreement with the common S-RM mechanical behavior. Furthermore, permeability increases with WBP increase to more than 70 %, denoting a similar threshold to the findings observed in strength characteristics.     

Effects of model parameters,topography, and scale on the mass movement processes of debris avalanches using the discrete element method

The mass movement process of a debris avalanche is a complex dynamic system and is influenced by topographic conditions, material composition, sliding-bed surface conditions and other factors. A discrete element method is used to simulate the mass movement process of debris avalanches and is validated by laboratory flume tests. Sensitivity analyses for the model parameters show that a low bond strength indicates that a small impact force can lead to slope failure. The friction coefficient has a little effect on the mass movement process. However, high particle stiffness and bond strength causes the sliding material to behave like a rigid block of rock; therefore low bond strength and particle stiffness are selected to simulate the laboratory flume tests. The velocity of the sliding material increases with the increasing slope of the flume. If the sliding material hits a barrier, the travel direction will change and energy dissipation will occur, resulting in the sudden decrease in velocity. With an increase in landslide volume, the model parameters particle stiffness and parallel bond strength should be increased to ensure the reasonableness of the simulated results. When the landslide volume is not large enough, the selection of those model parameters has no significant effect on the movement process. The proper selection of model parameters is very important for the reasonableness of the simulated results.     

基于状态曲面的非饱和土强度准则及其验证

考虑体变对非饱和土土-水状态的影响,将状态曲面函数引入传统的Vanapalli强度公式得到与孔隙比相关的抗剪强度准则,新准则使用饱和土的强度参数和两条不同孔隙比对应的土-水特征曲线。选择一种尾矿砂和高岭土的混合土料为研究对象,进行一系列的土-水特征曲线试验、吸力控制的等向压缩和三轴剪切试验。试验结果表明,新准则能更准确地预测非饱和土的强度,证明了传统强度预测的误差主要来源于忽略了体变导致的土-水状态变化,并提出在不同应力空间内精确地获得抗剪强度包线的方法,合理地解释了强度包线斜率在净应力-强度平面内随吸力增大、强度包线形状在吸力-强度平面内随净应力发生变化的特性。     

基于PFC3D的黄土三轴试验细观参数敏感性分析

从细观角度出发,研究各细观参数对黄土三轴试验宏观力学响应的影响,基于三维离散元PFC3D软件及理论,结合室内三轴试验结果确定数值模拟基本细观参数取值范围,在50 kPa、100 kPa、150 kPa、200 kPa围压下对三轴试样进行颗粒流模拟,通过改变各细观参数值对黄土数值试样宏观力学行为影响程度及正交试验设计的方式,开展黄土三轴数值模拟过程中摩擦系数、孔隙率、颗粒刚度比k_n/k_s、颗粒粒径分布的敏感性分析,建立土体细观参数与宏观力学的关系式。结果表明:不同围压下数值试样峰值强度和剩余强度均与摩擦系数正相关,与颗粒刚度比、孔隙率负相关,而颗粒粒径分布的变化对其影响均小于2%。低围压下(50 kPa),孔隙率对数值试样峰值抗剪强度和剩余强度影响最大,颗粒刚度比次之,高围压下(200 kPa),摩擦系数对数值试样强度的影响比颗粒刚度比更为显著;对数值试样的初始线弹性模量和应变软化特性影响最大的细观参数为孔隙率,刚度比次之,颗粒粒径分布最小,200 kPa围压下正交试验分析结果与数值分析结果一致。通过改变细观参数取值范围的方式系统地分析了其对黄土三轴试验宏观力学性能的影响,为今后离散元软件用于黄土室内试验研究提供了参考。     

Effects of skeleton void ratio on the strength and deformation characteristics of coarse-grained soilEI北大核心

粗粒土强度变形特性与初始级配和制样干密度密切相关。为研究不同级配和密度组合的粗粒料强度变形特性,提出了一种计算简便、易于推广的粗粒土骨架孔隙比计算方法。开展的室内试验结果表明,该计算方法所得的骨架孔隙比与粗粒土力学特性之间存在较为明显的单调性变化规律。当试样尺寸一致时,随着骨架孔隙比减小,破坏剪应力增大,破坏摩擦角增大,黏聚力减小;平均初始切线弹性模量增大,平均初始切线泊松比减小。整体而言,骨架孔隙比越小,粗粒土强度、刚度越大。基于该结论,笔者提出了一种等骨架孔隙比粗粒土缩尺方法。     

Numerical analysis of the response of reinforced soils to direct shearing: Part 2

A soil-reinforcement load transfer model was developed by the authors¹ to simulate the response of the reinforced soil material to triaxial compression and direct shearing. This paper presents the application of the proposed model for the numerical analysis of direct shear tests on sand samples reinforced with different types of tension resisting reinforcements. A parametric study is conducted to evaluate the effect of the mechanical characteristics and dilatancy properties of the soil, extensibility (elastic modulus) of the reinforcements, and their inclination with respect to the failure surface on the response of the reinforced soil material to direct shearing. An attempt is made to verify the proposed model by comparing numerical test simulations with experimental results reported by Jewell,² and Gray and Ohashi.³ Comparisons of predicted and experimental results illustrate that the model can provide adequate simulations of the response of the reinforced soil material to shearing. In particular, it allows an evaluation of the effect of soil dilatancy (or contractancy), and extensibility of the reinforcement on tension forces generated in inclusions during shearing.     

新型GS固化土与水泥土的力学特性对比研究

GS(Gypsum-Slag)土体硬化剂是一种由水泥、钢渣、矿渣和脱硫石膏及其他外加剂组成的新型土体固化材料。将GS土体硬化剂和水泥两种固化剂固化土作为研究对象,通过室内无侧限抗压强度试验和电镜扫描试验,研究固化土的应力-应变曲线以及土质、固化剂掺量、龄期对固化土力学性能的影响,观察其微观结构,进而对比分析GS土体硬化剂和水泥的特性,并进行现场试验加以验证。研究结果表明：相比水泥土,GS固化土应力-应变曲线存在明显峰值;GS固化土和水泥土的强度均随着掺量和龄期正增长,且GS固化土的长期强度更高;GS固化土和水泥土变形模量分别是其抗压强度的31.11～77.24倍和23.24～71.62倍;GS固化土现场成桩的完整性优于水泥土。相比水泥土,GS固化土具有强度增长快、后期强度高、经济效益好的特点,可较好满足地下工程和路基工程等土体加固应用需求。     

Experimental and numerical study of soil-reinforcement effects on the low-strain stiffness and bearing capacity of shallow foundations

This paper presents results of meticulous laboratory testing and numerical simulations on the effect of reinforcement on the low-strain stiffness and bearing capacity of shallow foundations on dry sand. The effect of the location and the number of reinforcement layers is studied in the laboratory, whereas numerical simulations are used to study the reinforcement-foundation interaction. Laboratory tests show an increase of 100, 200, and 275% not only in bearing capacity but also in low-strain stiffness (linear load–displacement behaviour) of a square foundation when one, two, and three layers of reinforcement are used, respectively. The specimen preparation technique is found to be crucial for the repeatability and reliability of the laboratory results (less than 5% variability). Numerical simulations demonstrate that if reinforcements are placed up to a depth of one footing width (B) below the foundation, better re-distribution of the load to deeper layers is achieved, thus reducing the stresses and strains underneath the foundation. Numerical simulations and experimental results clearly identify a critical zone between 0.3 and 0.5B, where maximum benefits not only on the bearing capacity but also on the low-strain stiffness of the foundation are obtained. Therefore, soil reinforcement can also be used to reduce low-strain vibrations of foundations.