A review of the ocean science and technology partnership between US and Korea

In 2001, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Integrated Coastal and Ocean Resources Scientific and Technical Arrangement was signed to pursue scientific and technical cooperation in integrated coastal and ocean resources management in the mutual interest of the participants. Over the last 6 years, the cooperation has been very beneficial, particularly for advancing marine science and management programs in Korea, such as Deep Sea Aquaculture, Sea Grant College Program, Marine Protected Areas, and Ocean Observations. The benefits to NOAA from the cooperation include Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) buoys, ocean and coastal observations, GEOSS program, and Global Program of Action. Also the cooperation has spillover effects on other ocean science and technological arrangement between US and Korea. This article reviews purpose, obstacles, and achievement of the cooperation and suggests recommendations for the future steps.     

England's evolving marine and coastal governance framework

This paper reviews the principal marine and coastal policy changes in England since 1999. The key changes identified are the establishment of a strategic national marine and coastal policy direction, new marine legislation and institutions, the emergence of a marine planning framework, the consolidation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management approaches to coastal governance, the establishment of a Marine Protected Area network, and the decline of coastal partnerships. The European Union, UK National Government, and devolved administrations are identified as key influences on the governance evolution and their relative contributions are discussed. It is concluded that the English marine and coastal governance context has evolved significantly since 1999 and that the new framework, if implemented successfully, represents a genuine step towards an integrated governance framework for England's coasts and seas.     

The convergence of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the ecosystems approach

The primary role of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management model was to arbitrate conflicts between stakeholders in a living and natural resource environment characterized by a common property and open access doctrine. A chronology of events describes how the development and acceptance of an ecosystems approach policy began to converge and coincide with the spread and development of Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Those organizations that gave representation to the conservation ethic became internationally recognized as surrogate natural resource ‘users’, the interests of which possessed commonality with all stakeholder interests in general. The tenants of conservation policy were therefore largely employed to decide the merits of disputes over ocean and coastal resources.In the 1990s, scientists created a forum to debate, better define, and institutionalize a sound basis for ecosystem management theory and practice. Protocols were developed that embedded science in living and natural resources planning and management. These protocols were shaped and adopted to serve an evermore contemporary Integrated Coastal Zone Management model. Improvements in methodology include the use of adaptive management, ecological modeling and monitoring, appropriate temporal and spatial scales, salient indicators, and stakeholder participation. This contemporary approach is dependent upon recognizing the benefits inherent in utilizing instruments capable of managing resources on a holistic level.Bioregional planning and zoning accommodate the successful management of resources on this level. It is a direct outcome of the convergence of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the ecosystems approach. Bioregional zoning schemes are capable of traversing the private property and common property doctrines that define the respective terrestrial and aquatic environments of the coastal zone.A comparative case study of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Belize Marine Protected Area Program is included as an annex, the analysis of which is predicated upon the principles espoused in the literature.     

Canada's Atlantic Coastal Action Program: A community-based approach to collective governance

The Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP) is a community-based coastal management initiative that has been underway on Canada's east coast for the past 6 years. Coalitions of local stakeholders have been assisted by government in taking a lead role for the planning and management activities in 13 coastal ecosystems throughout Atlantic Canada. The program was initiated and originally facilitated by the federal government (Environment Canada) but has come to be led and owned at the local level. The objective is to have all those affecting and/or affected by local decisions involved in this process. In ACAP, the traditional role of government is shared with the local roundtables that are established in each coastal ecosystem. Instead of government departments being the lead agencies that set policy and priorities, the communities assume this function and the government agencies become partners in responding to their identified needs. ACAP is a practical demonstration of the joint management, or collective governance approach to Integrated Coastal Management and offers lessons to governments and coastal communities looking to establish lasting partnership approaches that have the potential to achieve the sustainable development of coastal ecosystems.     

Integrated terrestrial and marine planning in England’s coastal inter-tidal zone: Assessing the operational effectiveness of the Coastal Concordat

In many countries, the regulation of activities and development in the marine environment has begun to evolve from a compartmentalised, fragmented, sectoral and uncoordinated system into a more strategic, comprehensive, integrated and transparent one. A remaining challenge, however, is the effective integration of marine and terrestrial planning, because the tools and mechanisms necessary for its achievement have been slow to be implemented. The introduction of the England's Coastal Concordat in 2013, as a voluntary framework for better integrating marine and terrestrial planning consents, represents an atypical mechanism to secure these goals. This paper is a preliminary survey of the perceived effectiveness of the Coastal Concordat, based on a survey of 32 professionals from the terrestrial planning authorities, marine statutory agencies and marine-sector businesses. While this evaluation is made less than two years after the introduction of the Coastal Concordat, it is important to undertake a preliminary examination, from various stakeholder perspectives, of the factors likely to be influential in the integration of regulatory systems, before the approach is ‘rolled out’ across other parts of England's inter-tidal coastal zone. The results indicate that the Coastal Concordat has produced benefits for marine planning in coastal areas, but that these improvements are largely experienced within the public sector in terms of better communication, early engagement, and a single point of contact. The marine sector businesses are more neutral about the benefits of the Concordat. It is clear, however, that marine sector businesses must participate in the formulation of any reforms if an effective integrated system of planning and management of coastal environments is to be achieved.     

The missing middle: Central Arctic Ocean gaps in fishery research and science coordination

The warming global climate is reducing sea-ice coverage in the central Arctic, transforming a mostly inaccessible marine region into a 'new' and relatively poorly studied ocean. History shows that exploitation of newly accessible natural resources tends to precede effective research and management measures. But in response to increasing access to the central Arctic, a precautionary approach has been taking hold, with broad political and scientific support culminating in the Oslo Declaration of 2015, which aims to prevent unregulated high seas fishing in the central Arctic. Negotiations toward a full binding agreement are continuing. Formal efforts toward assessing knowledge of the Arctic marine ecosystems and coordinating research are underway, and practitioner-based research coordination and collaboration in the region is also ongoing. Yet broad gaps in our current marine research and coordination exist, and this paper draws attention to the spatial middle, middle trophics, and the middle scale — an Arctic 'missing middle'. Scientific activity in the central Arctic Ocean region is burgeoning in recent years, and a large number of initiatives, projects, and arrangements are meeting some of the need for coordination. But full pan-Arctic scientific coordination does not yet exist. In support of ecosystem-based and precautionary management of the central Arctic Ocean, this paper considers a fully Arctic-focused organization that can both orchestrate and prioritize marine research in the Arctic in view of policy imperatives, and bring emerging scientific understanding of the region directly into the discussion and formation of new policy.     

Use of Federal Sand for Beach Nourishment and Shore Protection Projects

Coastal shoreline protection and beach nourishment are significant issues for coastal states along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. In some areas, there is a critical need to identify suitable sources of sand for possible use in public works projects for coastal protection. The continental shelf contains large resources of sand and gravel that could be used to support such projects. The U.S. Department of the Interior's (DOI) Minerals Management Service (MMS) provides policy direction and guidance for development of the resources located on the federal portion of the continental shelf. This article highlights the MMS's Sand Program, focusing on its cooperative resource and environmental studies with several coastal states, significant milestones and accomplishments, and anticipated activities in 1998 and beyond. Management of sand resources on the federal portion of the continental shelf has been made easier by a federal state partnership concept. Using this cooperative concept, joint projects are being conducted to investigate offshore sand resources, potential sites, extraction methods, and related environmental conditions. The MMS has procedures for negotiating sand agreements under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) and ensuring that the resources are developed in an environ mentally sound manner. The authority to negotiate with project sponsors, an important recent change in the OCSLA, also resides with the MMS. This 1992 change in OCSLA facilitates the use of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)resources for public projects. Further, the MMS is authorized to assess a fee based on the value of the resource and the public interest served. The MMS has worked with local sponsors and authorized the use of OCS sand for two projects. However, additional resource and environmental projects, as well as negotiated agreements, are anticipated within the near future with states and local governments along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.     

The role of local Government in marine spatial planning and management in Taiwan

As a result of population growth and economic development, there has been a rapid increase in sea use around the island of Taiwan. Such increased use is placing pressure on the marine environment and its resources. Three draft territory laws (the Draft National Territory Planning Act, the Land Re-conservation Draft Bill, and the Draft Coastal Act) and the Local Government Act are neither consistent nor sufficiently comprehensive. Consequently, local Governments (municipalities and counties) experience difficulties in planning and managing their inshore waters. This paper will discuss the role local Governments plays in marine spatial planning and management. Local Government officials working in specialist marine affairs units from Kaohsiung and Keelung cities were surveyed to elicit their views with regards to management authority, management capacity and resources, officials’ commitment, and intergovernmental coordination/collaboration with respect to inshore waters. In-depth interviews were also conducted with local directors of specialist marine affairs units along with experts, to identify the causes of problems brought to light through the survey and to propose potential solutions to these problems. The study findings indicated that it is necessary to specify the marine spatial planning and management authority, as well as the scope of local Governments, in both the Coastal Act and Local Government Act. In order to sustainably develop Taiwan’s marine and coastal areas, it is important that the following four primary factors (management authority, management capacity and resources, officials’ commitment, and intergovernmental coordination/collaboration) be improved.     

Ocean governance in the South Pacific region: Progress and plans for action

The Pacific Island Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), which was released in 2002, provided the framework for ocean governance in the Pacific region. Since then there have been a myriad of policy documents and institutional arrangements that have been developed to address ocean governance issues, however, little progress has occurred with regard to the actual implementation of PIROP. This paper examines the region's progress in establishing integrated oceans management, and how this fits with the use of marine spatial planning and area based management tools, such as marine protected areas. It argues that policy making in this region encounters the usual difficulties with integrated policy approaches experienced elsewhere but that these difficulties are further accentuated when applied to developing nations that are highly dependent on external support. It suggests a way forward for the future with development of action plans, implementation and the practical application of those plans including a regional contextualisation/analysis of progress against regional objectives.     

Is there a win–win scenario for marine nature conservation? A case study of Lyme Bay,England

A statutory two hundred and six square kilometre ‘closed area’ in Lyme Bay, South West England entered into force on the 11 July 2008 to protect the reef substrate and the associated biodiversity from the impacts of trawling and dredging with heavy demersal fishing gear. This case study provides an example of how the ecosystem approach has been incorporated into decision making for marine nature conservation and shows that despite sound ecological knowledge of a marine area, the current reliance on traditional neo-classical economic valuations for marine spatial planning can obscure other issues pertinent to the ecosystem approach. With the Government seeking win–win scenarios for stakeholders in the designation of Marine Conservation Zones under the Marine and Coastal Access Act, experience of marine spatial planning in Lyme Bay has revealed that a win–win must be a long-term goal based on a thorough evaluation of the environmental, social and economic values of marine biodiversity.     

海岸带综合管理和陆海统筹的概念内涵研究进展

随着海洋与海岸带开发利用活动的复杂化和深入化,海岸带地区的资源环境问题逐渐显露出来,经济效益降低,传统单一的海岸带管理模式无法满足海洋开发的需求。国外由此提出了海岸带综合管理的概念,我国与之对应的是陆海统筹发展战略。文章对海岸带综合管理与陆海统筹的发展历程进行梳理,分析其概念内涵及发展变化,并从战略目标、空间范围、功能范围和实施手段4个方面比较了二者内涵的异同。最后,指出海岸带综合管理与陆海统筹后续研究应加强海岸带综合管理典型案例研究,推动海岸带综合管理走向海岸带综合治理,探讨人、陆、海三者耦合的机理和过程,加强陆海统筹的发展路径研究。     

Numerical Study of the Oil Spill Trajectory in Bohai Sea,China

Sixteen numerical experiments are conducted using the General NOAA Operational Modeling Environment (GNOME) to numerically study the oil spill trajectory in the Bohai Sea, China, for the purpose of providing information for the oil cleanup and disaster mitigation. High resolution coastline and topography data investigated by China's 908 Program are used to accurately describe the regional geographic feature of the Bohai Sea. Currents and waves required by GNOME are generated by the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model and Simulating Wave Nearshore, respectively. Experimental results show that oil spilled in different seasons and at different locations will result in completely different spilling trajectories, traveling distances, and polluting areas. Knowing that information comprehensively is vital to pollution control. Another important goal of this work is to provide users with simulated oil spill trajectory information through China Digital Ocean Prototype System (CDOPS), a grand marine information platform for managing, displaying, and public sharing of the data investigated by the China 908 Program. Users can obtain the trajectory, spreading, and potential impact area of the spilled oil through the oil spill module in CDOPS.     

Place-based ocean management: Emerging U.S. law and practice

Marine protected areas and marine reserves are being established in United States ocean waters under several federal and state laws. Relevant laws include the National Marine Sanctuaries Act, the Magnuson–Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management, the National Monument Act, the federal Submerged Lands Act, and the California Marine Life Protection Act. This article evaluates U.S. place-based ocean management from the perspectives of relevant international law principles and programs and foreign nation experiences relevant to the U.S. It then focuses on the challenges presented in managing multiple uses of U.S. ocean waters in the face of federal and state jurisdictional complexity. Integrating place-based management with fisheries management is given special attention.     

Biogeographic assessments: A framework for information synthesis in marine spatial planning

This paper presents the Biogeographic Assessment Framework (BAF), a decision support process for marine spatial planning (MSP), developed through two decades of close collaborations between scientists and marine managers. Spatial planning is a considerable challenge for marine stewardship agencies because of the need to synthesize information on complex socio-ecological patterns across geographically broad spatial scales. This challenge is compounded by relatively short time-frames for implementation and limited financial and technological resources. To address this pragmatically, BAF provides a rapid, flexible and multi-disciplinary approach to integrate geospatial information into formats and visualization tools readily useable for spatial planning. Central to BAF is four sequential components: (1) Planning; (2) Data Evaluation; (3) Ecosystem Characterization; and (4) Management Applications. The framework has been applied to support the development of several marine spatial plans in the United States and Territories. This paper describes the structure of the BAF framework and the associated analytical techniques. Two management applications are provided to demonstrate the utility of BAF in supporting decision making in MSP.     

Regulatory setting for very large floating platforms in Hawaii

This paper provides an overview of the regulatory regimes pertinent to operating very large floating platforms (VLFPs) in Hawaii. Coastal and offshore jurisdictions are defined and key county, state and federal authorities and responsibilities are described. Forty applicable state and federal laws are cited. Special consideration is given to marine management areas, state claims for extended jurisdiction, native Hawaiian entitlements, submerged lands, ocean leasing, water quality areas and the humpback whale national marine sanctuary. VLFPs in Hawaii probably will have to be deployed offshore, out of sight of scenic coastal viewplanes, to assure public acceptance. However, offshore positioning is coincident with a simpler regulatory regime (federal) and lowered regulatory uncertainty and risk. The unambiguous delimitation of the seaward extent of state jurisdiction may well be the paramount regulatory issue requiring resolution for deciding where to site a VLFP in Hawaii.     

Integrated management councils: A conceptual model for ocean policy conflict management in Australia

Integrated management is a central theme of Australia's Oceans Policy (AOP). Improving integration across sectors and jurisdictions has been identified in a number of Australian initiatives in coastal and marine policy developed in the past decade. These initiatives include the Regional Marine Planning process under AOP undertaken in 2000–02 and commitments to a National Coastal Policy made in 2002. These initiatives have highlighted the need for institutional arrangements that address these two key dimensions of integration in the Australian marine environment. This paper reviews Australian initiatives in ocean and coastal policy and draws on lessons from Canadian experience to propose Integrated Management Councils as a ‘way forward’ for integrated and adaptive management focusing on the decentralization of power and community participation in the decision-making process.     

Marine protected areas in Puerto Rico: Historical and current perspectives

In Puerto Rico, the environmental legislation for establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) is complex due to its current political position with the United States (US) as not only local but also federal US laws affect designations. Historically, during the Spanish rule, mangrove forests were protected for extractive reasons (i.e., charcoal) and the first protected area was established by 1918 as an Insular Forest. Currently, of the 37 MPAs recognized and investigated in this work, the vast majority (73%) are Natural Reserves, followed by Commonwealth Forests (13.5%). Most MPAs in Puerto Rico were implemented using a top-down approach (i.e., government) which follows US federal guidelines for protecting endangered species, critical habitats, and natural and cultural resources. The development of management plans for MPAs on the island is increasingly adopting a public participatory process. However, this latter process is new for the government of Puerto Rico that has not incorporated a policy based on an Integrated Coastal Management.     

基于多维影响机制的海岸带退缩线分级分类评估及管控研究——以东营市为例

海岸带退缩线是海岸带国土空间规划工作的重要部分,平衡沿海城市资源利用与生态保护需求,保障沿海地区健康可持续化发展的安全底线。目前我国海岸带退缩线缺乏系统的评估和管控体系,文章通过梳理社会经济价值、空间发展潜力、景观风貌风险、海洋灾害风险、生态环境价值5个影响维度与海岸带各类要素的关联机制,建立了陆海统筹的滨海地区海岸带退缩线重要程度的评估体系,总结我国海岸带退缩线分级分类差异化管控策略,并以东营市为例,进一步探讨了该评估体系在退缩线划定和管控层面的应用,以期为海岸带国土空间规划的管控提供参考。     

全球海洋观测系统及我们的对策初探

全球海洋观测系统（ Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ－ ｔｈｅ Ｇｌｏｂａｌ Ｏｃｅａｎ Ｏｂｓｅｒｖｉｎｇ Ｓｙｓｔｅｍ） 是一个新型的、根据用户需要对海洋资料进行获取、收集、质量控制和分发的全球性业务化系统。它由气候、海洋生物资源、海洋健康、海岸带环境和海洋服务等五个模块组成。 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划目前已由概念设计阶段进入到地区性示范阶段,东北亚 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划和欧洲 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划已取得一些进展。 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划已受到世界各海洋国家的关注和支持,参与的国家越来越多。本文介绍了 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划的背景、目标、任务和 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ系统的构成,简述了迄今取得的进展,讨论了我们从参与 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划可获得的效益,并对我国实施 Ｇ Ｏ Ｏ Ｓ 计划提出了一些建议。